THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


,^(.^ 

/^'S 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/delphiancoursesy01delpiala 


XT    BY   t~E    DCIPHIAN   SOCIE 


Tim    ADORATIOX    OF    FHE    MAGL 

Kct-ru.lucc.l  for  our   M.-:-:V.o;  >  thr.-;^'.   the  .    :;v^e,y  of 


111'-;  illlMtUli;i'<-'l  ni 

l-rc:Kh  monks  i:. 

lury.     The-  bord'.r.        ..  -.;  ■■■^ 

figures  .-.-attcrcil  ilirou^^h  iii  !"ii-'--  . 

"^"'^'''^  ■         •    •  '       Thii- i>  taken  irom  one 


t  the  iMurieer/ili  ccn- 
ilocs  many  groie^qu^ 


indicatcf-  :hi-.  a^  aUo  the 


stvlc  of  the  la.e.  in  the  inK.iat.irc  w...v, 
ofth.manVB..okot  Hour,"  and  ^vas  the  r^^^  ""'-[-l  "^ 
"Sext  Hour."  a  full  de.erip  -:on  of  .llumuiated  manu>.r>,t  .-.U 
be  found  Tart  IX,  page    1"1- 


SYSTEMATIC 
PLAN  OF  EDUCA- 
TION. EMBRACING 
THE  WORLD'S  PROG- 
RESS  AND  DEVEL- 
OPMENT OF  THE 
LIBERAL 
ARTS 


COUNCIL  OF  REVIEW 


Very   Rev.  J.   K.   Brennan Missouri 

CiSLE  EoTiiNE,  jr.  A.     -       -       -     University  of  Minnesota 

Chas.   II.   Caffin New  York 

James  A.  Craio,  M.A.,  B.D.,  Ph.D.,  University  of  Michigan 

Mrs.    Sarah   Platt  Decker Colorado 

Alcee  Fortier,  D.Lt.     ...       -       Tul.ine  University 

RoswELi,  Field Cliicago 

HrucE  G.  Kingsley    -    Royal  College  of  Organists,  England 

D.  D.  LuckEnbili,,  A.B.,  Pn.D     -     University  of  Chicago 

Kenneth  McKenzie,  Ph.D     - 

Frank  B.  Marsh,  Ph.D.    - 

Dr.  Hamilton  Wright  Mabie 

W.  A.  Merrill,  Ph.D.,  L.II.D. 

T.  M.   Farrott,  Ph.D.     -      - 

Grant  Siiowerman,  Ph.D.    - 

II.  C.  ToLMAN,  Ph.D.,  D.D.     - 

I.  K.  WiNC.M.A.      -       -      - 


Yale  University 

University  of  Texas 

New  York 

University  of  California 

Princeton    University 

University  of  Wisconsin 

Vanderbilt  University 

Michigan 


nJAiAiArAi/^iAiArAiAiAiAiAiAiAiAfAi/^iAiAirjruAifMnininiriiAiriiniAiriinirir^^^ 


VOL.  I 


THE     DELPHIAN     SOCIETY 


Copyright  1913 

BY 

THE  DELPHIAN  SOCIETY 

Chicago 

Revised  1916 

Revised  1919 

Revised  1922 


COMPOSITION.    ELECTBOTYPINO.   PRINTIN* 
AND   BINDING   BY  THE 

W.  B.  CON  KEY  COMPANY 
Hammond,  Indiana 


Page 

The  Delphian  Movement viii 

Prehistoric  Man;  Customs  and  Occupations.    Dawn  of  Civilization.  ..xiv 

EGYPT. 
Prefatory  Chapter 13 

Chapter  I. 
Its    Antiquity;    Story    of    Joseph,    Physical    Geography,    Prehistoric 
Egypt 20 

Chapter  II. 
Sources  of  Egyptian  History;  Herodotus'  Account  of  Egypt 31 

Chapter  III. 
Pyramid  Age;  Early  Egyptian  Kings;  Construction  of  Pyramids 37 

Chapter  IV. 
Age  of  Darkness ;  Middle  Empire ;  Reigns  of  Amenemhet  I.  and  III. ; 

Description  of  Labyrinth   43 

Chapter  V. 
Egypt  under  the   Shepherd  Kings;  Beginning  of  the  New  Empire; 
Conquests  of  Thutmose  1 51 

Chapter  VI. 
First  Egyptian  Queen ;  Temple  of  Hatshepsut ;  Expedition  to  Punt  ....     57 

Chapter  VII. 
Military   Kings;    Hymn    of  Victory;    Worship   of   the    Solar    Disk; 
Temple  of  Karnak   64 

Chapter  VIII. 
Nineteenth    Dynasty;    Egypt    under    Ramses    the    Great;    Twentieth 
Dj^nasty ;  Priest  Rule ;  Ethiopian  Kings   72 

Chapter  IX. 
Social  Life  in  Egypt ;  Houses,  Dress,  Family  Life 85 

Chapter  X. 
Sports  and  Recreations 96 

Chapter  XL 
Agriculture  and  Cattle  Raising;  Arts  and  Crafts;  Egyptian  Markets; 

Military  Affairs 109 

III 


18722-^2 


IV  TABI*E  OF   CONTENTS — PART  I. 

Chaptes  XII. 

Page 
Schools  and  Education ;  Egyptian  Literature 112 

Chapter  XIII. 
Religion  of  Ancient  Egypt;  Hymn  to  the  Nile;  Egyptian  Temples  and 
Ceremonies  119 

Chapter  XIV. 
Art  and  Decoration 133 

Chapter  XV. 
Tombs  and  Burial  Customs 188 

Chapter  XVI. 
Excavations  in  Egypt;  Discoveries  of  W.  M.  Flinders  Petrie 144 

Descriptions  of  Egypt. 

Description  of  the  Nile 153 

Feast  of  Neith 155 

Karnak    159 

Memphis   161 

Hymn  to  the  God  Ra 163 

Egyptian  Literature. 

An  Old  Kingdom  Book  of  Proverbs 164 

The  Voyage  of  the  Soul  16K 

The  Adventures  of  the  Exile  Sanehat 171 

The  Song  of  the  Harper 179 

Present  Day  Egypt. 

Alexandria 181 

Cairo 182 

Egyptian  Museum 185 

Suez  Canal 187 

BABYLONIA  AND  ASSYRIA. 
Prefatory  Chapter 193 

Chapter  I. 
Early  Civilization  of  Asia;  Recovery  of  Forgotten  Cities 201 

Chapter  II. 
Sources  of  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  History;  Physical  Geography...  211 

Chapter  III. 
Prehistoric  Chaldea;  Charms  and  Talismans;  Semitic  Invasion 218 

Chapter  IV. 
City-States  Before  the  Rise  of  Babylon;  Hymn  to  the  Moon-God 227 

Chapter  V. 
Dominance  of  Babylon 232 


TABLE   OF    CONTENTS — PART   I.  V 

Chapter  VI. 

Page 
Beginnings  of  Assyrian  Empire;  Conquest  of  Asshumatsirpal 237 

Chapter  VII. 

Assyria   a    Powerful    Empire;    Hebrew    Account   of    the    War   with 
Assyria    245 

Chapter  VIII. 

Last  Years  of  Assyrian  Dominance 256 

Chapter  IX. 
Chaldean  Empire  in  Babylonia 264 

Chapter  X. 
Social  Life  in  Mesopotamia.  The  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  Compared ; 

Their  Houses  and  Family  Life 270 

Chapter  XI. 
Morality  of  the  Ancient  Babylonians 276 

Chapter  XII. 

Literature  and  Learning ;  Deluge  Story 283 

Chapter  XIII. 
Clothing  Worn  by  Assyrians  and  Babylonians;  Their  Food 293 

Chapter  XIV. 
Architecture  and  Decoration 300 

Chapter  XV. 
Religious   Customs   307 

Chapter  XVI. 
The  Laboring  Classes ;  Professions 317 

Chapter  XVII. 
The  Medes    328 

Chapter  XVIII. 
Condition  of  Persia  Before  the  Age  of  Cyrus ;  Cyrus  the  Great  and 
the  Persian  Empire   332 

Chapter  XIX. 
War  with  Greece 340 

Chapter  XX. 
Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Persians;  Their  Religion 346 

Chapter  XXI. 
Contributions  of  Babylonia,  Assyria  and  Persia  to  Modem 

Civilization  357 


VI  TABI,^  Ot  CONTENTS — PART  I. 

Assyrian  Literature, 

Page 

Chaldean  Account  of  the  Deluge 361 

Descent  of  Ishtar  to  Hades 367 

Gyges  and  Assurbanipal  871o 

Purity 371c 

Zoroaster's  Prayer   371rf 

THE  HEBREWS  AND  THEIR  NEIGHBORS. 

Chaptee  I. 

Syria 872 

Chaptee  II. 
The  Land  of  Phoenicia;  Reign  of  Hiram;  Invasion  of  Asshurbanipal  378 

Chaptee  III. 
Phoenician  Colonies  and  Commerce 390 

Chapter  IV. 
Occupations  and  Industries;  Literature  and  Learning;  Religion 399 

Chapter  V. 
Physical  Geography  of  Palestine;  Climate  and  Productivity 408 

Chapter  VI. 
Effects  of  Geographical  Conditions  upon  the  Hebrews 418 

Chapter  VII. 
Sources  of  Hebrew  History 426 

Chapter  VIII. 

Condition  of  the  Hebrews  Prior  to  Their  Occupation  of  Canaan 434 

Chapter  IX. 

Era  of  the  Judges  441 

Chapter  X. 

Morality  of  the  Early  Hebrews 448 

Chapter  XL 
Causes   Leading   to    the   Establishment   of   the   Kingdom.     David's 
Lament;  His  Reign.  Solomon  Rules;  King  Solomon  and  the  Bees  453 

Chapter  XII. 

After  the  Division  of  the  Kingdom ;"  End  of  Israel 469 

Description  of  Illustrations 483 


FULL  PAGE  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PART  I. 

Page 

Illuminated  Missal Frontispiece 

Distant  View  of  the  Pyramids 44 

Near  View  of  Pyramids  and  Sphinx 68 

Tourists  Scaling  the  Great  Pyramid 92 

Column  and  Pylon  of  Karnak 124 

Beautiful  Island  of  Philea 148 

Windows  of  a  Harem 172 

Ship  of  the  Desert  (Photogravure) 192 

Winged  Lion   236 

Musicians  and  Attendants  in  the  Garden  of  Asshurbanipal 284 

Sword-Maker  of  Damascus 348 

The  River  Jordan 392 

Jappa  Harbor   432 

Roses  of  Sharon 464 

Map  of  Ancient  Egypt vi 


«n 


THE  DELPHIAN  MOVEMENT 

wo  THOUSAND  years  before  the  sight  of  a 
new  world  burst  upon  the  view  of  the  Genoese 
mariner,  there  existed  in  north-central  Greece  a 
sanctuary  famous  in  three  continents.  Located 
in  mountainous  Phocis,  in  a  natural  amphithe- 
ater, overhung  by  frowning  rocks  and  reached  only  through 
mysterious  caves,  was  the  Oracle  of  Delphi.  Here  in  remote 
times  Apollo  was  believed  to  reveal  his  wishes  to  men 
through  the  medium  of  a  priestess,  speaking  under  the  in- 
fluence of  vaporous  breath  which  rose  from  a  yawning  fis- 
sure. Her  utterances  were  not  always  coherent  and  were 
interpreted  to  those  seeking  guidance  by  Apollo's  priests. 

As  its  fame  spread,  the  number  of  visitors  to  Delphi  in- 
creased. More  priests  were  needed  to  counsel  and  advise. 
Although  the  first  blind  faith  in  earlier  deities  lessened,  the 
prestige  of  Delphi  was  nevertheless  preserved.  Apollo's 
priests  became  better  versed  in  the  affairs  of  Greece  and  the 
surrounding  countries;  their  assistants  became  familiar  with 
all  vital  issues,  and  thus  intelligent  replies  were  given  to  un- 
ceasing inquiries.  In  time  the  Greek  divinities  were  almost 
forgotten  and  Christianity  became  the  state  religion,  yet  the 
Oracle  of  Delphi  continued  to  draw  men  unto  it  until  the 
fifth  Christian  century. 

Ancient  writers  have  left  us  abundant  accounts  of  jour- 
neyings  made  thither  by  potentates  and  kings,  and  have  de- 
scribed at  length  the  rich  offerings  left  by  them  in  gratitude. 
The  humble  were  seldom  mentioned  by  early  writers  and  it 
remained  for  the  last  few  years  to  bring  to  light  little  leaden 
tablets — valueless  from  the  standpoint  of  plunderers,  earth- 
covered  and  revealed  only  by  the  excavator's  spade — silent 
testimonials  of  appeals  made  to  the  oracle  by  the  common 
people. 

VIII 


THE   DELPHIAN    MOVEMENT  IX 

Perhaps  at  first  thought  we  find  the  influence  which  the 
Delphian  oracle  exerted  for  more  than  a  thousand  years 
throughout  Greece  unaccountable,  but  upon  reflection  we  per- 
ceive that  it  held  its  power  because  it  was  the  best  answer  that 
epoch  could  give  to  man's  eternal  need  for  greater  wisdom 
than  his  individual  experience  can  provide.  It  may  fittingly 
be  compared  to  the  influence  of  the  Church  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  To  it  were  referred  alike  questions  of  international 
policy,  and  the  private  affairs  of  humble  citizens. 

There  is  no  doubt  but  that  implicit  faith  directed  the  first 
visitors  to  Delphi,  and  beyond  question  this  faith  to  some 
extent  survived.  The  peasant  accepted  literally  the  presence 
of  deity,  but  there  have  been  in  all  ages  the  discerning  who 
have  distinguished  between  the  symbol  and  that  symbolized, 
and  certainly  the  keen,  alert  Greeks  did  not  remain  blind 
adherents  of  antiquated  conceptions.  The  wisdom  of  the 
Delphian  priests  was  revered  and  their  judgments  accepted 
much  in  the  same  way  as  were  those  of  the  seers  who  taught 
the  children  of  Israel  at  the  city  gates,  so  that  the  Oracle 
of  Delphi  still  remained  potent — a  name  with  which  to  con- 
jure— long  after  the  belief  that  the  deity  himself  was  present 
had  given  place  to  another. 

Today,  the  number  who  ask  "Whence  cometh  wisdom,  and 
where  is  the  place  of  understanding?"  is  more  than  all  who  ever 
sought  the  offices  of  the  priestess  on  her  tripod.  We  have 
learned  that  not  gaseous  exhalations,  but  a  thorough  under- 
standing of  the  past,  will  reveal  the  secrets  of  the  future,  and 
that  these  "oracles"  are  best  interpreted  by  thoughtful  groups, 
instead  of  by  one  frenzied  prophetess.  The  name  Delphian 
was  chosen  for  this  national  educational  movement  because 
we  too  are  seekers  for  wisdom,  and  we  would  not  lose  the 
spell  of  the  storied  past,  as  we  renew  the  age-old  quest. 

E^ch  new  decade  brings  new  needs,  and  the  conditions  of 
fifty  years  ago  were  wholly  different  from  those  confronting 
us  today.  Ours  is  an  age  characterized  by  intensity,  strenuous 
effort  and  tireless  exertion.  Leisure  seems  to  have  disap- 
peared from  our  national  life  and  to  be  remembered  only 
when  reviewing  pleasant  stories  of  other  times.  Educators 
complain  that  we  are  neglecting  the  wisdom  of  the  past — that 
the  enduring  thoughts  of  men  as  preserved  to  us  in  their 


X  th^  worijj's  progress. 

writings  have  ceased  to  be  familiar.  The  thoughtful  deplore 
the  loss  of  culture,  courtesy  and  old-time  chivalry.  Fre- 
quently the  critics  fail  to  look  beneath  the  surface  for  reasons 
leading  to  the  very  evident  result  The  truth  is  that  in  no 
previous  age  have  the  hearts  of  people  been  more  sensitive 
to  injustice,  more  united  for  fair  dealing  between  man  and 
man,  more  eager  for  the  best  the  world  can  offer.  It  is  only 
that  the  cultural  methods  which  served  in  the  past  are  unsuited 
to  our  machine-driven  civilization.  Of  course  time  will  adjust 
this,  but  we  who  are  living  in  the  transition  period  must  meet 
modern  conditions  with  modern  methods. 

At  present  people  accumulate  fine  libraries  and  rarely 
read  them;  for  their  shelves  they  seek  the  best — for  their  di- 
version the  lightest  and  most  transient  literature.  Few  are 
there  who  do  not  dream  of  a  happy  time  when  it  shall  be 
their  delight  to  browse  among  their  books  and  find  com- 
panionship in  them.  Still  the  years  fly  by  relentlessly  and 
many  who  are  not  mere  theorists  are  sounding  a  warning: 
This  time  so  fondly  anticipated  will  never  come  to  many  of 
the  present  generation;  seize  today;  snatch  a  brief  moment 
for  the  consideration  of  enduring  thoughts;  do  not  rrierely 
provide  for  the  temporal  wants  and  leave  the  soul  famishing. 
Dr.  Eliot,  late  president  of  Harvard,  in  repeated  lectures  and 
addresses  has  voiced  this  crying  need. 

"From  the  total  training  during  childhood  there  should 
result  in  the  child  a  taste  for  interesting  and  improving  read- 
ing, which  should  direct  and  inspire  its  subsequent  intellectual 
life.  That  schooling  which  results  in  this  taste  for  good 
reading,  however  unsystematic  or  eccentric  the  schooling  may 
have  been,  has  achieved  a  main  end  of  elementary  education ; 
and  that  schooling  which  does  not  result  in  implanting  this 
permanent  taste  has  failed.  Guided  and  animated  by  this 
impulse  to  acquire  knowledge,  and  exercise  his  imagination 
through  reading,  the  individual  will  continue  to  educate  him- 
self all  through  life.  Without  that  deep-rooted  impulsion  he 
will  soon  cease  to  draw  on  the  accumulated  wisdom  of  the 
past  and  the  new  resources  of  the  present,  and,  as  he  grows 
older,  he  will  live  in  a  mental  atmosphere  which  is  always 
growing  thinner  and  emptier.  Do  we  not  all  know  many 
people  who  seem  to  live  in  a  mental  vacuum — to  whom,  in- 


THE   DELPHIAN    MOVEMENT  XI 

deed,  we  have  great  difficulty  in  attributing  immortality,  be- 
cause they  apparently  have  so  little  life  except  that  of  the 
body?  Fifteen  minutes  a  day  of  good  reading  would  have 
given  any  one  of  this  multitude  a  really  human  life/'^ 

To  meet  this  condition,  which  prevails  throughout  the 
length  and  breadth  of  our  land,  to  stimulate  a  deeper  interest, 
quicken  a  latent  appreciation  and  facilitate  the  use  of  brief 
periods  of  freedom  for  self-improvement,  the  Delphian  So- 
ciety was  organized  and  the  Delphian  plan  of  education 
mapped  out. 

Believing  that  only  a  comprehensive  course  could  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  day  and  prove  acceptable  to  a  large 
number  of  people,  the  Delphian  Society  has  included  those 
subjects  which  are  now  offered  in  the  curriculums  of  our 
leading  colleges  and  universities — history,  literature,  phil- 
osophy, poetry,  fiction,  drama,  art,  ethics,  music.  Mathe- 
matics, being  in  its  higher  forms  essential  to  few,  has  been 
omitted;  languages,  requiring  the  aid  of  a  teacher,  and  such 
sciences  as  make  laboratories  necessary,  are  not  included. 
None  of  these  subjects  possesses  purely  cultural  qualities. 
Technical  information  has  no  place  whatever  in  such  a  scheme. 
The  branches  of  human  interest  which  remain  are  those  of 
vital  importance  to  everyone. 

Not  only  is  the  list  of  subjects  widely  inclusive,  but  the 
method  of  treatment  has  been  carefully  considered.  Finding 
the  beginnings  of  most  modern  activities  in  antiquity,  the 
Delphian  Course  presents  the  gradual  unfoldment  of  each 
subject  from  earliest  times  to  our  own.  The  distance  be- 
tween an  imitation  of  the  hunt,  as  found  among  the  diver- 
sions of  primitive  people,  and  a  modern  play  is  great,  and 
yet  no  complete  idea  of  the  latter  can  be  acquired  without 
some  conception  of  dramatic  origins.  The  crude  picture 
drawn  upon  the  sooty  hide  which  formed  a  hut  in  early  times 
and  the  crowning  masterpiece  of  a  Raphael  present  extremes, 
and  yet  he  who  would  follow  the  gradual  growth  of  painting 
realizes  that  each  has  its  place  in  the  progress  of  art.  Only 
in  comparatively  recent  times  has  the  value  of  each  link 
which  forms  the  long  chain  of  development  been  understood. 
No  amount  of  heterogeneous  reading  can  compare  with  the 

*  Eliot:   Educational  Reform. 


XII  THE  WORI,d's  progress. 

systematic  tracing  of  one  subject  from  its  early  manifesta- 
tions to  its  present  forms. 

Correlation  of  topics  presents  wonderful  possibilities.  If 
we  become  interested,  for  example,  in  society  as  portrayed  in 
the  earliest  English  novels,  how  much  more  shall  we  then 
appreciate  the  canvases  of  Hogarth,  which  depict  the  same 
social  conditions.  If  the  age  of  idealism  in  literature  be 
under  consideration,  the  productions  of  contemporaneous 
artists  grow  to  have  for  us  a  new  significance. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  imagine  that  relaxation  and  diversion 
are  obtainable  only  from  reading  matter  of  the  day.  Oscar 
Kuhms  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  "to  spend  hours  over 
illustrated  magazines,  Sunday  newspapers,  and  the  majority 
of  popular  novels,  has  very  little  to  do  with  the  art  of  read- 
ing in  its  larger  sense."  To  a  far  greater  extent  than  is  gen- 
erally imagined,  the  inordinate  reading  of  magazines  accounts 
for  the  host  of  superficial  readers  of  our  generation.  To  see 
how  temporary  is  their  interest  one  needs  only  to  examine 
journals  three  or  four  years  old. 

The  pleasures  of  travel  may  be  greatly  enhanced  by  defi- 
nite knowledge  of  countries  visited — their  recorded  past,  the 
manner  of  life  of  those  who  dwelt  within  them  and*  those 
now  populating  them ;  ruins,  old  temples,  surviving  art,  make 
slight  appeal  to  those  wholly  unfamiliar  with  the  ages  that 
produced  them.  The  enjoyment  of  a  play  is  more  poignant 
for  the  one  who  has  in  mind  the  changes  which  plays  and 
playhouses  have  witnessed.  There  is  something  impressive 
in  the  thought  that  for  ages  audiences  have  been  thus  held 
spellbound.  Four  centuries  before  the  Christian  era  impos- 
ing dramas  and  keenly  satirical  comedies  were  given  before 
larger  assemblies  than  modern  theatres  could  accommodate. 
Only  in  modern  times  has  a  curtain  separated  the  players 
and  spectators.  Formerly  the  favored  sat  upon  the  stage  it- 
self; in  the  Elizabethan  playhouse  the  majority  stood 
throughout  an  entire  performance.  Sentences  in  Shakes- 
peare's plays  are  meaningless  without  taking  these  facts  into 
account.  Some  extended  acquaintance  with  pictures  would 
put  an  end  to  comments  made  not  infrequently  by  critics  that 
the  spectacle  of  groups  of  people  today  in  attendance  upon  an 
art   exhibit   supplies   an   astonishing  sight.     The  majority — 


THE   DELPHIAN    MOVEMENT  XIII 

SO  it  has  been  stated — find  a  number  in  their  catalogues, 
search  frantically  about  for  a  picture  so  designated,  and  when 
they  discover  it,  sigh  with  satisfaction  and  begin  the  search 
for  another — "for  all  the  world  as  though  they  were  indulg- 
ing in  a  simple  hunting  game!"  Why  Raphael  painted  so 
many  Madonnas,  why  Watteau  seems  to  have  known  only 
the  gay  and  carefree — these  are  simple  questions  which  many 
might  find  perplexing  to  explain  adequately. 

The  traveler  whose  time  in  a  foreign  land  is  limited  does 
not  seek  the  commonplace  and  unattractive;  he  does  not  try 
to  compass  all  a  city  might  have  to  show  in  the  brief  period 
he  can  spend  there ;  rather,  he  obtains  the  guidance  of  those 
more  familiar  with  the  locality,  and  gives  his  attention  to  the 
best  it  has  to  offer.  So  if  our  time  for  reading  and  self-im- 
provement must  be  brief,  we  shall  find  small  satisfaction  in 
wasting  it  blindly  searching  for  what  may  satisfy.  Educa- 
tors are  usually  less  pressed  by  insidious  cares  and  more  free 
to  give  their  devotion  to  favorite  subjects. 

Finally,  let  us  remember  that  we  are  not  reading  chiefly  for 
information.  We  read  to  develop  our  insight  into  the  mystery 
of  life ;  to  gain  an  individual  viewpoint ;  to  establish  our  stand- 
ards of  conduct  and  modify  our  standard  of  judgment.  Read- 
ing which  is  mere  diversion  can  never  bestow  this  power.  It  is 
for  this  reason  the  Delphian  plan  concentrates  upon  the  knowl- 
edge whose  value  has  been  proved  by  time.  This  is  the  infor- 
mation which  will  provide  the  true  perspective  for  the  drama, 
the  art,  the  Hterature  and  the  history  of  our  time.  From  the 
vantage  point  of  familiarity  with  it,  we  can  discern  more 
clearly  the  merits  of  what  is  new,  and  best  of  all,  we  shall 
make  the  pleasing  discovery  that  through  ceasing  to  read  only 
for  diversion,  all  of  our  reading  has  become  more  diverting. 

The  Delphian  chapter  programs  have  been  planned  to  bring 
about  individual  development  through  group  activity. 
Through  the  group  are  gained,  poise,  practice  in  self-expres- 
sion, and  the  broadened  outlook  of  differing  viewpoints.  The 
ideal  of  the  society  is  that  each  Delphian  chapter  shall  be  a 
means  for  broadening  and  deepening  the  interests  of  every 
member  in  all  things  which  build  up  the  community,  in  higher 
education,  personal  improvement  and  social  progress. 


PRIMITIVE  DRAWING  OF  llAN. 

PREHISTORIC  MAN 


fj^  HE  word  prehistoric  means,  literally,  before  his- 
^*^  tory  begins,  and  by  prehistoric  man  we  mean 
those  human  beings  who  lived  upon  the  earth 
before  records  were  kept.  History,  properly  so 
called,  does  not  begin  until  civilization  is 
'reached.  The  roaming  of  savage  people  over  land  in 
search  of  food  has  little  or  no  importance  for  the  student  of 
history,  although  knowledge  of  a  people  in  its  savage  state  may 
throw  some  light  upon  its  future  development.  While  prehis- 
toric ages  are  the  concern  of  the  archaeologist  rather  than  the 
historian,  we  shall  find  that  historic  ages  owe  a  great  debt  to 
prehistoric  ages,  and  with  this  aspect  of  the  matter  the  historian 
has  deep  interest. 

The  science  of  geology  teaches  us  that  the  earth  has  not 
always  possessed  its  present  familiar  appearance.  On  the  con- 
trary, countless  years  were  consumed  in  molding  it  to  its  pres- 
ent shape,  and  even  yet  it  is  undergoing  constant  change.  It 
is  supposed  that  in  the  beginning  all  was  a  chaotic  heap  of  Mat- 
ter. In  the  words  of  a  familiar  story :  "The  earth  was  with- 
out form  and  void,  and  darkness  was  upon  the  face  of  the 
deep." 

Whether  the  first  cause  of  motion  was  direct  Divine  will 
or  the  working  out  of  purely  scientific  law  is  not  our  province 
to  determine  here.  Speaking  in  terms  of  geological  record, 
the  whole  chaotic  mass  grew  rounder  and  rounder,  flattening 
slightly  at  the  poles,  or  the  ends  of  the  axis.  Gradually  the 
surface  of  the  mass  cooled,  and  cooling,  formed  the  earth's 
crust.  Because  it  did  not  cool  evenly,  but  shrunk  to  fit  the 
still  molten  mass,  this  surface  or  crust  was  left  with  deep 
crevasses  and  higher  ridges.  This  marked  irregularity  was 
further  increased  by  mighty  upheavals  caused  by  pressure 
of  heat  from  within.  Thus  were  many  of  the  mountains 
formed. 

XIV 


PREHISTORIC    MAN-  XV 

This  process,  so  slightly  indicated  here,  extended  over  a 
vast  period  of  time.  It  is  supposed  that  later,  for  a  protracted 
period,  rain  fell.  When  the  age  of  rain  had  passed,  the  deep 
depressions  in  the  earth's  surface  were  left  filled  with  water — 
our  present  oceans  and  some  of  the  seas.  It  would  be  im- 
possible for  us  to  review  rapidly  all  the  stages  through  which 
the  earth  passed  in  its  making.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  conditions 
upon  it  were  not  always  favorable  to*  life  as  we  know  it.  In 
course  of  long  geological  ages  — ^perhaps  millions  and  millions 
of  years — forests  of  trees,  plants,  shrubs  and  flowers  sprang 
up  and  covered  the  bare  earth.  Last  of  all,  probably,  man 
appeared.  How  all  these  things  came  about  no  one  under- 
stands, but  it  is  generally  accepted  that  they  occurred  in  an  order 
similar  to  that  just  given.  It  would  be  useless  for  us  to  inquire 
into  all  the  reasons  that  have  led  to  these  conclusions,  but  the 
most  important  one  has  been  evidences  within  the  earth  itself. 

Men  who  work  deep  down  in  mines  know  that  as  they 
descend  lower  and  lower,  the  temperature  rises,  until  there  is 
a  noticeable  difiference  between  the  temperature  at  the  entrance 
of  a  mine  and  at  its  lowest  point.  Moreover,  not  infrequently 
volcanoes  pour  forth  streaming  lava,  smoke  and  fire  accom- 
panying the  eruption.  While  such  evidences  lead  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  temperature  of  its  interior  is  very  high,  still 
there  are  many  reasons  for  believing  that  the  earth  is  a  solid 
mass.  From  the  examination  of  the  various  earth  strata,  their 
composition  and  the  evidences  each  bears  of  the  conditions  under 
which  it  was  formed,  we  learn  of  periods  of  rain,  heat  and  cold 
prevailing.  All  these  facts  belong  to  the  realm  of  geology  how- 
ever, and  concern  us  here  only  as  they  have  concerned  the  pro- 
gress of  mankind.  These  same  earth  layers  or  strata  which  pre- 
serve eloquent  testimony  regarding  the  earth's  development,  con- 
tain also  remains  of  prehistoric  men — men  who  lived  in  the  far 
away  time  before  records  were  made  and  of  which  the  rocks 
alone  give  testimony. 

Of  the  beginnings  of  the  human  race  we  know  little. 
Many  scientists,  notably  Darwin  and  his  followers,  have  sought 
to  show  that  man  evolved  from  some  lower  animal  life,  in  a  way 
similar  to  that  in  which  we  find  some  plant  or  flower  perfected 
from  inferior  origin.  Whether  the  theory  of  man's  evolution 
from  some  lower  animal  will  ever  be  shown  to  be  true  the  future 


XVI  THE  world's  progress. 

alone  can  tell,  even  though  the  scholarly  world  today  has  gen- 
erally accepted  the  evolutionary  view  of  life  and  the  world. 

Buried  within  the  earth  along  river-beds,  around  cliffs, 
in  mounds  and  many  other  places,  have  been  found  remains 
of  primitive  man.  While  the  beginnings  of  the  human  race, 
as  has  been  said,  are  utterly  unknown,  the  earliest  stage  of 
which  we  have  knowledge  has  been  called  the  Paleolithic  Age, — 
the  age  of  the  River-drift  Man. 

Whether  we  accept  the  theory  of  man's  evolution  from  the 
lower  animal  kingdom  or  not,  we  must  admit  that  the  earliest 
Paleolithic  people  of  whom  we  have  knowledge  differed  but 
little  from  the  wild  beasts.  They  lived  in  caves  along  rivers, — 
natural  retreats  where  wild  animals  might  have  taken  refuge. 
They  lived  on  berries,  roots,  fish  and  such  small  game  as  they 
could  kill  by  blows.  They  did  not  cook  their  food,  but  devoured 
raw  meat  much  as  did  the  wild  beasts.  They  did  not  even  bury 
their  dead.  From  the  stones  accessible  to  them  they  selected 
their  weapons,  chipping  them  roughly.  The  crude  weapons 
of  this  period  have  given  it  the  name  of  the  Rough  Stone  Age. 

The  Paleolithic  man,  or  man  of  the  Rough  Stone  age,  did 
not  try  to  tame  the  beasts  he  encountered.  He  stood  in  great 
fear  of  those  with  whose  strength  he  was  not  able  to  combat. 
He  feared  especially  strange  beings  like  himself,  and  with  his 
family  dwelt  apart  from  others  so  far  as  possible.  He  did 
not  plant  nor  gather  stores  for  the  future ;  thus  when  food  failed 
in  his  vicinity,  he  was  obliged  to  roam  on  until  he  came  upon 
a  fresh  supply  of  acorns,  berries,  roots  and  small  animals.  Any 
cave  served  for  his  dwelling.  He  protected  himself  from 
cold  by  a  covering  made  from  the  skin  of  the  beast  he  had 
slain.  He  had  few  belongings  and  these  were  scarcely  valued, 
being  easily  replaced. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  see  why  the  man  of  the  Rough  Stone 
Age  preferred  to  live  by  the  side  of  some  river.  In  early  times, 
before  paths  were  worn  through  the  forests,  travel  was  easiest 
along  the  river  bed.  Food  was  more  abundant  here,  for  fish 
inhabited  the  streams  and  thither  also  animals  came  to  drink, 
and  in  the  reeds  by  the  river's  side,  birds  and  wild  fowl  breeded. 
Morever,  man  was  a  timid  creature  and  feared  to  venture  far 
inland. 

From  all  this  we  see  that  man  in  his  primitive  state  gave 


PREHISTORIC    MAN.  XVII 

little  promise  of  his  future  development.  For  how  long  a  time 
he  continued  in  this  stage,  we  cannot  estimate.  Yet  we  find 
a  decided  improvement  in  the  latter  part  of  this  Paleolithic  Age, 
for  fire  and  its  uses  became  known.  This  brought  about  a 
wonderful  change. 

The  man  of  the  Paleolithic  or  Rough  Stone  Age  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  man  of  the  Neolithic  Age — ^the  cliff  dweller.  He 
exchanged  a  home  by  the  river  for  one  higher  up  ;  secure  in 
some  elevated  cliff,  the  Neolithic  man  lived,  away  from  molest- 
ing beasts.  Again,  the  stone  weapons  were  greatly  improved. 
No  longer  were  they  rough  ;  on  the  contrary,  they  were  now 
polished  smooth.  Ingenious  from  the  beginning,  man  found 
that  sharp  edges  of  stone  were  more  useful  than  blunt  ones, 
that  smooth  handles  were  more  convenient  than  irregular  stones 
with  no  handles  at  alL  For  this  reason,  this  period  has  been 
called  the  Smooth  Stone  Age.  Other  improvements  no  less 
momentous  had  been  wrought.  Food  was  now  cooked,  and  as 
a  result,  man  grew  a  little  less  ferocious.  He  had  less  fear  of 
the  wild  beasts  than  before,  and  domesticated  some  of  them. 
No  longer  was  he  wholly  dependent  upon  such  food  as  nature 
provided,  for  he  had  learned  how  to  sow  grain  and  gather  it. 
He  had  learned  how  to  fashion  bowls  and  other  receptacles  of 
clay.  He  now  buried  his  dead  with  weapons  and  other  useful 
articles,  proving  that  he  believed  that  the  dead  still  had  need  of 
such  things.  We  must  not,  however,  suppose  that  he  believed 
in  immortality,  for  the  evidence  shows  that  his  conception  of 
a  hereafter  was  very  vague.  In  most  cases  the  care  for  and  fear 
of  the  dead  ceased  a  few  years  after  their  burial.  Before  the 
close  of  this  period  men  had  journeyed  far  from  abject  savagery. 
Finally  we  come  to  the  Metal — sometimes  called  the  Bronze 
— Age.  The  discovery  of  metal  proved  the  greatest  boon, 
for  now  it  was  possible  to  make  sharp  tools  and  weapons. 
Hitherto  the  mere  cutting  down  of  a  tree  had  taken  a  prodigious 
time.  With  a  bronze  ax,  it  could  be  quickly  accomplished. 
Progress  made  rapid  strides  after  this  invaluable  discovery. 
Nor  this  alone.  Having  learned  to  domesticate  the  beasts, 
men  passed  from  a  purely  hunting  into  a  pastoral  stage.  Sow^ 
ing  and  reaping  made  it  desirable  and  it  became  convenient  to 
have  a  fixed  habitation.  Instead  of  dwelling  apart,  it  proved 
safest  to  settle  in  hamlets  or  villages.  In  other  words,  man  had 
become  civilized,  and  with  the  dawn  of  civilization  we  find  the 
dawn  of  history. 

I — 2— Sept.   23 


XVIII  THE   WORLD  S   PROGRESS. 

From  this  cursory  view  of  the  three  important  stages  in 
prehistoric  times,  it  is  possible  to  derive  mistaken  notions. 
For  example,  there  was  never  a  time  when  stone  was  the 
only  material  available  to  man.  Wood,  ivory  and  shell  were 
probably  always  known  and  frequently  procurable.  Neither  is 
it  to  be  supposed  that  each  of  these  periods  broke  off  abruptly 
or  that  they  extended  over  all  lands  simultaneously.  Quite  on 
the  contrary,  stages  in  human  development  are  never  abrupt, 
and  changes  come  about  unnoticed.  In  nature  results  are 
slowly  attained  and  there  are  no  sharp  distinctions  between 
them.  The  three  divisions  of  Rough  and  Smooth  Stone  and 
Metal  Ages  refer  to  conditions  of  progress — not  to  periods 
of  time.  The  Egyptians  had  passed  through  all  three  stages 
before  the  dawn  of  history  ;  the  American  Indians  were  in 
the  Smooth  Stone  Age  when  Columbus  discovered  America  ; 
and  in  Central  Australia  there  are  tribes  today  just  emerging 
from  the  Smooth  Stone  period.  The  rapidity  with  which  a 
tribe  passes  from  one  to  another  of  these  stages  depends  upon 
the  natural  conditions  of  the  country,  contact  with  outside 
peoples  and  many  other  factors. 

When  written  records  enable  us  to  weigh  the  true  and 
the  false,  to  sift  out  fact  from  fiction  and  legend  from  verified 
event,  several  nations  had  come  into  possession  of  a  very  fair 
degree  of  civilization.  They  had  settled  homes  in  towns  and 
villages,  recognized  some  form  of  government,  understood  the 
uses  of  fire,  planted  crops  and  garnered  them,  spun,  wove 
and  made  pottery  ;  they  had  attained  considerable  skill  in  the 
working  of  metals,  had  domestic  animals  and  cultivated  plants ; 
they  possessed  a  spoken,  and  sometimes  a  written,  language 
and  had  attained  no  little  skill  in  decorative  art.  A  rich  legacy 
was  this  for  historic  ages.  Surely  there  Is  interest  for  the  his- 
torian in  this  remote  time  that  lies  clouded  still  by  much 
uncertainty.  Let  us  consider  some  of  these  more  important 
attainments  and  try  to  see  how  naturally  men  grew  to  master 
them  and  how  in  obscure  ages  the  human  race  travelled  so  far 
on  the  high  road  to  progress. 

Discovery  oe  Fire. 

We  have  already  noted  that  there  was  a  time  when  fire  was 
unknown.  How  then  could  the  Paleolithic  man,  thrown  wholly 


PREHISTORIC    MAN.  XIX 

upon  his  own  observation  and  resources,  come  upon  this  dis- 
covery, which  was  to  work  such  changes  for  the  future  ?  Only 
from  his  observance  of  natural  phenomena.  When  storms 
swept  over  desert  and  plain,  vivid  lightning  flashed,  and  oc- 
casionally some  tree  was  struck  by  the  bolt  and  flamed  up, 
greatly  to  the  astonishment  and  alarm  of  the  unknowing  mind. 
At  other  times,  volcanic  eruptions  occurred,  and  dry  leaves  and 
forests  caught  on  fire  from  flying  cinders.  In  the  natural 
course  of  events,  men  soon  found  that  the  warmth  of  burning 
wood  was  agreeable,  that  fire  at  night  allowed  them  to  keep 
watch  over  possible  invaders — whether  man  or  wild  beasts — 
and  that  the  interior  of  a  tree's  trunk  could  be  more  easily 
removed  by  burning  than  by  laborious  scraping  out  with  stone 
implements.  After  man  had  tasted  roast  flesh,  a  desire  for 
cooked  food  was  probably  developed.  Such  a  valued  possession 
as  fire  proved,  needed  to  be  carefully  tended,  and  when  it  was 
exhausted,  human  ingenuity  set  to  work  to  create  it  anew. 
It  is  not  unlikely  that  sparks  occasionally  struck  out  from  flint 
when  it  was  being  chipped  into  shape  for  a  weapon  or  imple- 
ment. Necessity  and  desire  have  always  worked  wonders,  and 
primitive  man  learned  shortly  to  produce  the  vital  spark,  both 
by  friction  and  by  drilling. 

The  art  of  fire-making  once  mastered,  many  innovations 
were  consequent  upon  it.  Some  fixed  habitation  was  necessary 
if  the  coals  were  to  be  kept  covered  from  day  to  day,  and  from 
meal  to  meal.  Cooked  foods  gradually  took  the  place  of  raw 
ones  ;  in  cold  weather  the  family  grew  to  gather  around  the 
fire,  where  meals  were  prepared  and  warmth  was  to  be  found. 
When  the  family,  clan  or  tribe  removed  to  a  new  home,  coals 
were  carried  to  kindle  the  fire  upon  the  new  hearth.  When 
men  journeyed  abroad  in  the  night,  they  carried  torches  to  guide 
them  ;  when  they  labored  at  home,  fire  grew  indispensable 
for  baking  their  clay  pottery,  smelting  their  ore,  and  manifold 
purposes. 

While  fire  became  one  of  man's  aids,  it  wrought  a  decided 
change  in  the  position  of  woman.  Before  its  discovery,  man 
and  woman  had  probably  gone  side  by  side,  sharing  alike  dan- 
gers and  hardships.  With  its  acquisition,  some  one  was  re- 
quired to  stay  to  watch  lest  it  go  out,  and  thus  was  developed 
the  fireside  and  the  home.    "  The  fire  has  made  the  home.    We 


XX  THE   world's   progress. 

have  heard  much  in  these  later  days  about  woman's  position. 
We  are  assured  that  she  has  not  all  her  rights.  Now,  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  the  primitive  woman  had  all  her  rights. 
It  is  probable  that  she  was  as  free  as  her  husband  to  kill  the 
wild  beasts,  catch  fish,  fight  her  savage  neighbors,  eat  the  raw 
meat  which  she  tore  by  main  strength  from  the  carcass  of  the 
lately  slain  beast.  The  beginning  of  woman's  slavery  was  the 
discovery  of  the  fire.  The  value  of  fire  known  and  the  need 
of  feeding  it  recognized,  it  became  necessary  that  someone 
should  stay  by  it  to  tend  it.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that 
woman  had  all  her  rights  and  was  free  to  come  and  go  as 
she  would,  it  was  still  true  that,  on  account  of  children  and 
certain  physical  peculiarities,  the  woman  was  more  naturally 
the  one  who  would  remain  behind  to  care  for  the  feeding  of 
the  flame.  Before  that,  men  and  women  wandered  from  place 
to  place,  thoughtless  of  the  night.  After  that,  a  place  was  fixed 
to  which  man  returned  after  the  day's  hunt.  It  was  the 
beginning  of  the  home."^ 

The  House. 

The  man  of  the  Paleolithic  Age  crept  into  any  cave  that 
offered  shelter  from  the  storm  and  molesting  beasts.  Such 
caves  were  plentiful  along  the  river's  bank.  Here  today,  else- 
where tomorrow,  little  heed  was  given  to  the  particular  shelter 
in  which  he  took  refuge.  With  the  possession  of  fire,  a  fixed 
home  became  desirable.  Even  so,  caves  still  remain  the  homes 
of  men  for  a  long  period  of  time. 

The  Neolithic  man  sought  an  abode  farther  away  from  the 
main  highway — the  river.  In  cliffs  towering  above  the  river 
bed — sometimes  away  from  streams  altogether,  he  scooped  out 
a  cave  similar  to  the  ones  occupied  by  his  ancestors.  Thus  in 
many  countries  remains  are  found  of  a  race  of  cliff-dwellers. 
In  ancient  Greece,  for  example,  have  been  found  evidences  of 
people  living  thus,  and  Indians  in  Mexico  and  Arizona  three 
thousand  years  later  were  discovered  in  similar  dwellings. 

With  a  settled  life,  and  cultivation  of  the  soil,  man  fre- 
quently was  forced  to  provide  a  home  for  himself.  The 
material  from  which  he  made  it  depended  upon  the  re- 
sources of  the  locality.     In  Egypt  and  Babylonia,  sun-baked 

» Starr :    Some  First  Steps  in  Human  Progress,  p.  28. 


PREHISTORIC    MAN.  XXI 

mud  huts  afforded  the  simplest,  least  expensive  structures,  both 
in  point  of  time  and  labor.  Among  pastoral  tribes,  tents 
formed  of  animal  skins  sewed  together  were  easiest  to  provide. 
This  was  the  usual  shelter  also  of  the  American  Indians  and 
other  hunting  tribes.  The  Laplander  found  cakes  of  ice  suited 
for  his  home,  w^hile  man  in  the  tropics  quickly  constructed  a 
shelter  from  the  huge  palm  leaves,  available  on  every  hand. 

"  Of  all  places  for  studying  construction  of  huts,  Africa 
is  the  very  best.  There  one  may  see  samples  of  everything 
that  can  be  thought  of  in  the  way  of  circular  houses;  built 
of  straw,  sticks,  leaves,  matting  ;  of  one  room  or  of  many  ; 
large  or  small  ;  crude  or  wonderfully  artistic  and  carefully 
made.  They  may  be  permanent  constructions  to  be  occupied 
for  years  or  temporary  shelter  for  a  single  night  ;  they  may 
consist  of  frameworks  made  of  light  poles  over  which  are 
thrown  mats  or  sheets  of  various  materials  and  which  after 
using  can  be  taken  apart,  packed  away,  and  transported."^ 

From  lightly  built,  temporary  dwellings,  it  was  but  a  short 
step  to  the  more  substantial,  more  enduring  ones.  Stone 
houses,  dwellings  made  of  timber  and  of  brick,  as  the  country 
afforded,  replaced  the  earlier  homes,  and  when  written  records 
bring  the  full  light  of  knowledge  upon  the  life  of  nations,  in 
the  matters  of  constructing  dwelling  places,  several  peoples 
had  become  proficient. 

Food. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  discover  any  plant  or  animal  life 
which  had  not  served  at  some  period  for  food.  Primitive 
man  knew  nothing  about  harmful  plants,  and  only  by  long 
experience  did  he  learn  to  avoid  such  as  worked  him  woe. 
No  insect  or  animal  is  so  repulsive  but  that  it  has  been  appro- 
priated by  the  food-hunter  in  some  age  and  country,  and  things 
today  which  we  would  refuse  in  time  of  distress  were  used 
as  a  matter  of  course  by  earlier  people. 

Nature  supplied  acorns,  berries,  roots,  fruits,  fish  and  plenty 
of  game.  All  these  articles  were  at  first  eaten  in  their  native 
state.  When  fire  became  well  known,  cooked  foods  grew  in 
favor.  It  is  supposed  that  these  were  at  first  roasted.  To  sus- 
pend meat  over  a  fire  or  make  a  large  opening  in  the  ground 

»  Starr ;  Some  First  Steps  in  Human  Progress,  p.  151. 


XXII  THE  world's  progress. 

cover  the  floor  with  stones,  heat  these  very  hot,  then  remove  the 
fire  and  bake  the  food,  these  are  the  most  primitive — as  well, 
perhaps,  as  the  most  satisfactory-v  -ways  known  to  us.  Boiling 
was  probably  a  later  method,  and  this  was  not  done  as  we 
boil  food  today.  Rather,  stones  were  heated  very  hot  and 
tossed  into  kettles  of  water.  In  this  way  the  water  was 
brought  to  a  boiling  point  and  the  food  cooked. 

Cultivated  Plants. 

Before  men  learned  to  cultivate  plants  and  to  domesticate 
animals,  subsistence  was  always  an  uncertain  matter.  They 
roamed  about  in  one  vicinity  until  nature  could  no  longer  sup- 
ply their  needs,  then  left  the  exhausted  land  to  recover  itself 
while  new  territory  afforded  means  for  satisfying  hunger. 
After  fire  became  such  a  potent  factor,  as  we  have  seen,  a 
fixed  abode  was  desirable.  It  fell  to  the  lot  of  women  to  stay 
and  tend  the  hearth.  Shut  off  from  the  long  expeditions 
undertaken  by  men,  they  soon  learned  to  make  as  much  as 
possible  of  the  space  around  about  their  homes.  Sticks  were 
sometimes  placed  around  plants  or  bushes  to  protect  them  from 
the  careless  step  until  their  fruits  matured.  Occasionally  plants 
were  dug  up  and  replanted  nearer  the  hut.  The  garden  and 
grain  field  were  but  natural  results  of  this  spirit  of  husbanding 
the  stores  provided  by  mother  earth. 

While  women  were  the  first  to  domesticate  plants  in  the 
simple  way  just  indicated,  not  much  came  of  it  until  men 
adopted  the  idea  and  carried  it  further.  With  sharp  sticks 
they  scratched  the  soil  and  with  the  help  of  animals  they  trod 
in  the  seeds.  Irrigation  was  sometimes  needed — as  in  Egypt 
— to  insure  good  crops.  Thus  from  slight  beginnings  de- 
veloped the  agriculture  of  the  world.  With  reasonable  labor 
and  painstaking,  the  tiller  of  the  soil  could  be  sure  of  a  living 
for  himself  and  his  family,  and  before  historic  records  illumine 
the  life  of  several  nations,  farming  was  well  understood. 
Indeed  it  is  safe  to  say  that  until  very  recent  times  methods 
followed  by  tillers  of  the  soil  in  quite  a  number  of  countries 
advanced  very  little  upon  those  of  the  prehistoric  man. 

It  is  interesting  to  trace  the  history  of  present  day  foods, 
grains,  vegetables  and  fruits,  with  the  attempt  to  ascertain 
where  each  was    native.    All  have  been  greatly  improved  by 


PREHISTORIC    MAN.  XXIII 

cultivation  and  not  alone  our  varieties,  but  even  distinct  fruits 
and  plants  have  resulted  from  man's  propagation.  Often  the 
original  species  have  been  vastly  improved.  For  example, 
the  potato  was  a  native  of  Chili.  Found  there  in  the  sixteenth 
century  of  our  era,  it  was  described  as  "  watery,  insipid,  but 
with  no  bad  taste  when  cooked."  It  is  supposed  that  it  was 
taken  from  some  Spanish  ship  to  Virginia,  and  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  same  century  carried  to  Europe.  Its  cultivation 
has  spread  over  many  countries,  and  from  a  small,  watery 
tuber  it  has  been  brought  to  large  size,  mealiness  and  taste 
agreeable  to  the  palate.  Even  today  it  flourishes  in  its  wild 
state  in  Chili  and  Peru. 

The  cabbage  was  once  a  weed,  growing  on  rocks  by  the 
seashore.  By  man's  care  it  has  been  developed  to  the  vegetable 
widely  used  today  ;  moreover,  its  blossom  has  been  exag- 
gerated until  a  wholly  new  vegetable  in  the  form  of  the  cauli- 
flower is  the  result. 

"  When  we  visit  a  vegetable  garden  or  see  fresh,  attractive 
fruits  offered  in  market  or  inspect  the  wonders  shown  upon  the 
tables  of  county  fairs  and  agricultural  shows,  we  seldom 
realize  how  truly  they  are  all  the  work  of  man.     .     .     . 

"  One  of  the  most  wonderful  illustrations  of  what  man 
can  do  in  changing  nature  is  seen  in  the  case  of  the  peach. 
Some  time,  long  ago,  perhaps  in  Western  Asia,  grew  a  wild 
tree  which  bore  fruits,  at  the  center  of  which  were  the  hardest 
of  hard  pits,  containing  the  bitterest  of  kernels  ;  over  this  hard 
stone  was  a  thin  layer  of  flesh — ^bitter,  stringy,  with  almost 
no  juice,  and  which,  as  it  ripened,  separated,  exposing  to  view 
the  contained  seed  ;  such  was  nature's  gift.  Man  taking  it 
found  that  it  contained  two  parts  which  might  by  proper 
treatment  be  made  of  use  for  food — the  thin  external  pulp 
and  the  bitter  inner  pit.  He  has  improved  both.  Today  we 
eat  the  luscious  peaches  with  their  thick,  soft,  richly-flavored 
juicy  flesh — they  are  one  product  of  man's  patient  ingenuity. 
Or  we  take  the  soft  shelled  almond  with  its  sweet  kernel  ;  it 
is  the  old  pit  improved  and  changed  by  man  :  in  the  almond, 
as  it  is  raised  at  present,  we  care  nothing  for  the  pulp  and  it 
has  almost  vanished.  The  peach  and  almond  are  the  same 
in  nature  ;  the  differences  they  now  betray  are  due  to  man."* 

"Starr:  Some  First  Steps  in  Human  Progress,  p.  80. 


XXIV  THE  world's  progress. 

Many  of  the  grains  were  known  and  grown  by  prehistoric 
man.  Millet,  wheat  and  barley  were  known  in  earliest  recorded 
times  in  Egypt;  these  grains  were  also  cultivated  before  his- 
toric times.  Oats  and  rye  were  early  plant  products.  Corn 
was  native  to  America  and  unknown  to  the  antiquity  of  the  Old 
World.  Several  of  our  vegetables,  such  as  the  radish,  carrot, 
turnip,  beet  and  onion,  were  early  grown  for  food.  The  lemon, 
orange,  fig  and  olive  were  all  native  to  Asia.  Many  flowers  are 
mentioned  by  early  writers  and  they  too  were  unquestionably 
carefully  tended  in  remote  times.  It  is  a  subject  for  pleasant 
investigation  to  find  out  where  flowers,  cultivated  in  some 
countries,  grow  wild  in  others. 

Domestication  oe  Animals. 

Desiring  to  provide  food  for  time  of  want,  primitive  man 
learned  to  keep  a  wounded  animal  instead  of  at  once  killing 
it.  Quite  naturally  it  might  come  about  that  such  a  creature 
would  grow  less  wild  and  become  a  pet.  To  secure  a  supply  of 
meat  without  exertion,  enclosures  were  probably  thrown 
around  herds  of  goats,  deer  or  sheep.  Ingenious  man  soon 
seized  upon  these  half  tamed  beasts  to  help  him  in  his  work. 
Their  use  being  proven,  he  would  not  rest  until  he  had  tamed 
them  to  his  hand.  The  dog  was  the  first  dumb  friend  of  men, 
accompanying  them  upon  the  hunt  and  aiding  in  bringing 
game  to  bay.  The  oldest  friend,  the  dog,  has  also  proven  the 
most  faithful  of  the  animal  kingdom.  When  history  dawned, 
the  dog,  cow,  sheep,  goat,  donkey,  and  pig  were  already 
domesticated.  The  horse  was  less  commonly  known  in  remote 
times.  All  these  animals  were  originally  small  and  not  to 
be  compared  with  their  present  day  descendants. 

Dress  in  Prehistoric  Times. 

Among  primitive  people  dress  is  invariably  a  simple  matter. 
In  warm  countries  little  clothing  is  needed,  and  even  in  colder 
lands,  ornaments  are  valued  above  mere  protection  from  the 
elements.  It  has  been  well  established  that  love  of  decoration 
has  been  a  powerful  factor  with  primitive  tribes,  and  that  to 
this  passion  the  habit  of  wearing  clothing  can  largely  be 
traced.  Skins  of  wild  beasts  were  often  used  by  early  men  as 
protection  from  the  cold,  but  it  will  be  remembered  that  the 


PREHISTORIC    MAN.  XXV 

Indians  found  by  early  discoverers  in  America  were  ver>  scant- 
ily clad,  although  furs  were  available  on  every  hand.  Yet 
the  Indian,  who  braved  the  winter's  blast  unclad,  was  eager 
to  barter  his  all  for  glass  beads,  scarlet  cloth,  or  little  trinkets 
with  which  he  could  ornament  himself.  The  habits  of  dif- 
ferent tribes  and  peoples  have  differed  considerably  ;  some 
have  adopted  clothing  earlier  than  others  ;  some  still  go  un- 
clad. Generally  speaking,  we  may  note  that  during  the  hunting 
stage,  if  men  have  worn  clothing  except  for  ornamentation, 
it  has  been  the  skins  of  animals  ;  as  spinning  and  weaving 
have  become  known,  coarse,  home-made  stuffs  have  come 
into  use.  In  Egypt,  linens  were  early  woven;  in  northern 
countries,  woolen  stuffs  were  made.  Feathers,  furs,  fabrics 
woven  of  grasses  or  reeds,  leaves,  shells,  teeth,  tusks  and 
metal  ornaments  have  held  varying  favor  for  decorative  pur- 
poses. 

Art. 

At  first  thought  it  seems  surprising  that  art  can  be  ulti- 
mately traced  back  to  the  self-ornamentation  of  the  savage  ; 
yet  this  is  probably  true.  The  earliest  people  of  whom  we 
know  loved  to  paint  their  bodies  ;  the  American  Indians  made 
ready  for  feast  or  war  by  painting  their  bodies  in  startling 
colors,  and  the  tribes  lowest  today  in  the  social  scale — tribes 
of  Central  Australia — have  a  similar  practice.  Dark  skinned 
tribes  have  frequently  painted  themselves  with  white  ;  fair 
skinned  tribes  with  dark  colors.  The  use  of  colors  among 
primitive  peoples  is  an  interesting  study,  and  it  is  significant 
to  note  that  red  has  always  been  a  favorite. 

"  Red — and  particularly  yellowish  red — is  the  favorite 
color  of  the  primitive  as  it  is  the  favorite  color  of  nearly  all 
peoples.  We  need  only  observe  our  children  to  satisfy  our- 
selves how  little  taste  on  this  point  has  changed.  In  every 
box  of  water  colors  the  saucer  that  contains  the  cinnabar  red 
is  the  first  one  emptied  ;  and  'if  a  child  expresses  a  particular 
liking  for  a  color,  it  is  nearly  always  a  bright  dazzling  red. 
Even  adults,  notwithstanding  the  modern  impoverishment  and 
blunting  of  the  color  sense,  still,  as  a  rule,  feel  the  charm  of 
red.'  ...  It  may  be  questioned  whether  the  strong  effect 
of  red  is  called  out  by  the  direct  impression  of  the  color,  or 


XXVI  THE  world's  progress. 

by  certain  associations.  Many  animals  have  a  feeling  for 
red  similar  to  that  of  man.  Every  child  knows  that  the  sight 
of  a  red  cloth  drives  oxen  and  turkeys  into  the  most  passion- 
ate excitement.  .  .  .  As  to  the  primitive  peoples,  one 
circumstance  is  here  significant  above  all  others.  Red  is  the 
color  of  blood,  and  men  see  it,  as  a  rule,  precisely  when  their 
emotional  excitement  is  greatest — in  the  heat  of  the  chase  and 
of  the  battle.  In  the  second  place,  all  the  ideas  that  are 
associated  with  the  use  of  the  red  color  come  strongly  into 
play — recollections  of  the  excitement  of  the  dance  and  combat. 
Notwithstanding  all  these  considerations,  painting  with  red 
would  hardly  have  been  so  generally  diffused  in  the  lowest 
stages  of  civilization  if  the  red  coloring  material  had  not  been 
everywhere  so  easily  and  so  abundantly  procurable.  Probably 
the  first  red  with  which  the  primitive. man  painted  himself 
was  nothing  else  than  the  blood  of  the  wild  beast  or  the  enemy 
he  had  slain.  At  present  most  of  the  decoration  is  done  with 
a  red  ochre,  which  is  very  abundant  nearly  everywhere,  and 
is  commonly  obtained  through  exchange  by  those  tribes  in 
whose  territory  it  is  wanting."* 

The  difficulty  found  in  this  means  of  decoration  is  that  it 
is  not  lasting.  However  skillfully  the  savage  covers  himself 
with  solid  coloring  or  design,  a  short  time  only  and  his  labor 
is  effaced.  To  overcome  this  trouble,  tattooing  was  devised. 
By  this  means  the  color  was  placed  beneath  the  skin  and  thus 
not  subject  to  change.  Very  elaborate  patterns  were  some- 
times worked  out  and  the  man  so  ornamented  was  far  more 
attractive  in  the  eyes  of  his  fellowmen. 

Next  to  the  personal  adornment  of  primitive  peoples  comes 
the  decoration  of  their  weapons  and  implements  and  the  pat- 
terns in  their  handicrafts,  such  as  basketry  and  mattings.  Gen- 
erally speaking  those  are  in  imitation  of  nature,  and  more,  imi- 
tation of  human  and  animal  forms.  Heretofore  it  has  not  been 
unusual  to  dismiss  these  as  merely  geometrical  designs.  Surely 
they  were  never  such  in  the  mind  of  the  ancient  worker.  He 
copied  things  that  he  saw  around  him — copied  them  awkwardly 
no  doubt,  but  nevertheless  certainly.  Some  of  these  patterns 
we  can  recognize  ;  others  defy  us.  For  example,  the  waving 
line  has  been  interpreted  to  represent  the  course  of  the  serpent  ; 

•  The  Beginnings  of  Art,  Grosse,  p.  61. 


PREHISTORIC    MAN.  XXVH 

the  herring  bone  pattern  originated  as  a  copy  of  the  feather. 
Sometimes  the  patterns  copy  the  skin  markings  of  some  animal 
or  serpent ;  sometimes  they  imitate  the  scales  of  a  fish.  Very 
seldom  have  these  early  artists  attempted  to  copy  plants  or 
flowers.  Sometimes  the  bone  knife  bears  an  excellent  draw- 
ing of  a  bird  or  fish  ;  occasionally  the  whole  object  has  been 
given  the  form  of  some  living  creature,  as,  for  example,  bone 
needle  cases  have  come  to  us  which  have  the  form  of  fish  or 
birds.  Shields,  knives,  bows  and  arrows,  and  weapons  of 
whatever  sort  often  bore  some  picture,  more  or  less  decorative. 
Such  a  picture  upon  an  arrow  enabled  the  savage  to  identify 
as  his  game  some  animal  that  died  some  distance  from  where 
it  was  wounded.  Clubs  and  throw-sticks  remain  whereupon 
is  scratched  the  picture  of  some  familiar  animal — a  kangaroo, 
a  snake,  or  a  fish.  But  the  pictures  painted  by  primeval  man 
were  not  limited  to  those  which  adorned  their  weapons  and 
implements.  The  hide  pictures,  or  pictures  painted  or  scratched 
upon  hides  are  very  interesting.  Generally  the  hide  used  for 
this  purpose  was  a  portion  of  the  hut.  During  times  when 
inclement  weather  forced  the  early  tribesman  to  remain  inside 
for  shelter,  it  may  be,  merely  for  diversion  he  occupied  him- 
self by  scratching  some  picture  upon  the  soot-covered  skin 
that  formed  his  hut.  A  tooth  or  bit  of  flint  furnished  him 
with  a  tool.  Or  again,  a  piece  of  charcoal,  snatched  from  the 
hearth,  furnished  him  means  of  picturing  some  scene  upon  a 
fresh  skin.  Figures  of  men  and  animals,  drawn  in  outline, 
make  up  the  picture.  Now  a  battle,  now  a  hunting  scene  may 
be  delineated.  The  Eskimo  brings  into  his  picture  some  of 
the  round  snow  huts,  with  the  animals  which  he  hunts — bears, 
walruses,  and  the  like.  In  detail  and  accuracy  of  outline 
the  tribes  still  in  the  hunting  stage  greatly  excel  those  which 
have  developed  into  a  settled  farming  people.  Nor  is  this 
difficult  to  understand.  The  success  of  the  hunter  depends  in 
no  small  degree  upon  his  ability  to  follow  the  faint  foot-prints 
of  the  game.  He  must  be  susceptible  to  many  indications 
wholly  unseen  by  the  casual  eye.  The  keen  vision  of  the 
uncivilized  hunter  is  well  recognized.  When  he  no  longer 
needs  this  wonderful  sight  to  accomplish  his  daily  tasks,  it 
disappears.  For  this  reason  we  find  a  fidelity  to  nature  in 
the  pictures  of  the  early  hunting  peoples  which  is  missed  in 
the  productions  of  more  highly  developed  peoples. 


XXVIII  THE   world's   progress. 

Finally  we  may  gather  these  conclusions  from  the  facts 
known  of  primitive  art — or  of  art  among  primitive  peoples. 
While  no  great  masterpieces  remain  as  models  for  future 
generations,  it  is  among  prehistoric  men  that  art  had  its  be- 
ginnings. Nor  is  it  possible  to  sweep  aside  the  art  of  this 
remote  period,  relegating  it  to  the  realm  of  the  curious  alone. 
Recent  scholarly  investigators  in  this  field  have  reached  far 
different  conclusions,  finding  here  the  indications  of  man's 
artistic  possibilities  and  the  promise  for  the  future. 

"The  agreement  between  the  artistic  works  of  the  rudest 
and  of  the  most  cultivated  peoples  is  not  only  in  breadth  but 
also  in  depth.  Strange  and  inartistic  as  the  primitive  forms 
of  art  sometimes  appear  at  the  first  sight,  as  soon  as  we  examine 
them  more  closely,  we  find  that  they  are  formed  according  to 
the  same  laws  as  govern  the  highest  creations  of  art.  .  .  . 
The  emotions  represented  in  primitive  art  are  narrow  and 
rude,  its  materials  are  scanty,  its  forms  are  poor  and  coarse, 
but  in  its  essential  motives,  means,  and  aims,  the  art  of  the 
earliest  times  is  at  one  with  the  art  of  all  times.'" 

Religion  of  Prehistoric  Men. 

It  is  naturally  very  difficult  to  trace  the  religious  belief 
of  the  people  of  earliest  times.  Of  their  art,  their  dress,  their 
food,  their  dwelling  places,  we  may  conjecture  with  some 
degree  of  accuracy  because  of  the  evidences  they  have  left 
behind.  But  how  shall  we  gain  any  worth-while  knowledge 
of  their  ideas  when  they  had  no  means  of  communicating 
them  in  indelible  forms?  We  must  judge  of  primitive  man's 
thoughts  by  what  he  did.  In  the  earliest  times  man  did  not 
bury  his  dead,  but  by  the  Smooth  Stone  Age  there  is  such 
advance  in  this  respect  that  it  is  probable  the  Neolithic  man 
received  his  first  glimmerings  from  his  Paleolithic  brother. 
He  buried  his  dead  with  weapons  and  implements  which  he 
imagined  would  be  as  useful  in  the  next  world  as  they  had 
proven  during  the  earthly  life. 

It  is  impossible  to  state  clearly  without  better  evidence 
just  what  his  imagination  pictured  for  his  dead  friend  or 
relative.  The  living  man  was  dimly  conscious  of  a  Great 
Spirit,  whose  voice  and  temper  were  discernible  to  him  in 
nature.     To  this  Great  Spirit  he  committed  his  dead  friend. 

5  The  Beginnings  of  Art,  Grosse,  p.  307. 


PREHISTORIC    MAN.  XXIX 

It  could  not  be  said  the  living  man  had  anything  approaching 
a  conscious  faith  in  the  unseen;  he  dimly  felt  a  duality  of 
existence.  His  friend  had  entered  into  this  other  part.  It 
is  not  improbable  that  dreams  helped  to  awaken  in  man  this 
sense  of  dual  existence.  That  "inner  voice"  which  has  forever 
prompted  man  seemed  to  tell  him  of  another  self.  This  "other 
self"  very  naturally  seemed  to  tell  him  of  an  existence  outside 
himself,  and  to  this  "outside  spirit"  he  gave  elementary  venera- 
tion through  the  forces  of  nature  this  spirit  appeared  to  employ. 

The  early  man  who  had  developed  a  religious  sense,  wor- 
shipped two  different  kinds  of  forces;  the  forces  of  nature, 
and  his  ancestors.  The  savage  bowed  down  to  the  stick  that 
tripped  him  in  the  forest.  He  could  not  understand  how  such 
a  small  object  could  possess  power  to  throw  him  and  since 
it  apparently  did  possess  it,  he  worshipped  it.  The  sun  brought 
light  and  warmth.  By  its  presence  man  was  benefited.  There- 
fore, primeval  man  worshipped  the  sun. 

Ancestor  worship  was  inspired  by  quite  different  motives. 
If  it  were  true  that  the  dead  lived  on,  then  it  must  be  possible 
for  them  to  work  one's  weal  or  woe.  If  the  dead  were  cared 
for  and  ministered  unto,  they  would  be  appeased  and  would 
have  no  desire  to  bring  trouble  or  misfortune  upon  the  sur- 
vivor. 

The  taboo  held  an  important  place  in  early  religious  be- 
liefs and  practices.  A  taboo  is  a  prohibition  laid  upon  some 
object  or  some  performance,  with  the  superstitious  idea  that 
injury  will  follow  if  the  object  be  used  or  the  performance 
done.  Some  of  the  tribes  of  Central  Australia,  today  in  the 
Smooth  Stone  stage  of  development,  hold  the  idea  that  the 
meat  of  the  emu  may  be  eaten  only  by  the  elders  of  the  tribe. 
For  women,  therefore,  there  is  a  taboo  on  this  meat,  and  its 
use  by  them  would  be  regarded  as  a  great  sacrilege.  The 
early  Hebrews  had  a  similar  taboo,  recorded  in  the  earliest 
set  of  commandments  preserved  by  them.  It  was  "  Thou  shalt 
not  seethe  the  kid  in  its  mother's  milk."  This  does  not  mean 
one  of  many  foolish  meanings  worked  into  it,  but  rather  that 
the  early  Hebrews  for  some  reason  had  placed  this  taboo  on 
kid  cooked  in  milk.  The  use  of  beans  was  similarly  tabooed 
by  Pythagoras  and  forbidden  to  his  followers.  A  study  of 
the  taboo  is  interesting  indeed. 


XXX  THE  world's  progress. 

The  totem  was  important  to  the  primitive  man.  A  totem 
is  an  animal  or  species  of  animal  from  which  a  social  circle 
derives  its  origin.  One  clan  owed  its  being  to  a  black  hawk, 
another  to  an  eagle,  and  so  on.  No  one  of  a  clan  would  kill 
its  totem,  or  in  other  words,  there  was  a  taboo  placed  upon 
the  totem.    Of  course  this  taboo  affected  only  the  one  clan. 

Early  religion  consisted  for  the  most  part  in  certain  ob- 
servances— not  so  much  in  formulated  beliefs.  To  be  sure, 
the  primeval  man  believed  that  harm  would  overtake  him  if 
he  failed  to  perform  certain  ceremonies,  but  it  was  the  per- 
formance or  the  refraining  from  the  performance  that  was  im- 
portant. 

Among  the  earliest  people  associated  into  tribes  there  were 
distinct  moral  requirements.  There  were  some  people  who  were 
not  to  be  killed,  except  upon  due  provocation,  while  to  kill  those 
of  other  tribes  brought  great  glory.  Again,  it  was  not  right 
to  lie  to  those  of  one's  own  tribe,  but  to  others  one  might 
lie  at  all  times.  "  An  eye  for  an  eye,  and  a  tooth  for  a  tooth," 
was  the  primitive  way  of  viewing  injury,  and  yet  when  history 
sheds  its  light  upon  certain  nations  of  antiquity,  some  of  them 
had  already  come  into  the  transition  state,  where  damages 
might  be  given  if  satisfactory  to  the  injured.  The  Babylon- 
ians afford  an  excellent  example  of  this  condition. 

CoNCIvUSION. 

Each  individual  passes  through  many  of  the  stages  through 
which  the  race  has  come.  A  child  may  pass  in  a  week  or  a 
month  through  a  stage  covering  centuries  in  the  development  of 
the  race,  but  nevertheless  he  experiences  it  clearly  for  the  time 
being.  The  savage  personified  everything  around  him.  If  he 
struck  himself  against  a  tree,  he  was  angry  with  the  tree  that 
had  hurt  him,  and  he  tried  to  hurt  the  tree  in  revenge.  The 
child  today  falls  against  a  chair  and  hits  the  chair  that  hurt 
him.  Now  just  as  the  child  by  such  experiences,  scarcely  noted 
by  others,  realized  far  less  by  himself,  comes  into  the  clear 
vision  of  manhood,  so  by  similar  experiences  the  whole  race  has 
come  to  its  present  development.  We  are  too  prone  to  smile  at 
the  conceptions  of  the  primitive  world,  and,  grown  wise  with 
the  flight  of  centuries,  cast  aside  the  bdiefs  of  early  ages 
when  men  adjusted  themselves  to  life.     Let  us  reflect  then 


PRKHISTORIC  MAN. 


XXXI 


upon  the  attainments  of  prehistoric  man  and  attempt  to  fathom 
how  great  a  debt  historic  peoples  owe  him.  In  view  of  his 
achievements,  we  must  grant  that  by  his  efforts  civihzation 
was  greatly  aided.  The  stepping  stones  on  which  he  rose 
from  abject  savagery  to  higher  things  stand  out  sharply  in 
spite  of  absence  of  records  and  scant  remains.  The  rough 
pioneering  had  been  done,  in  a  great  measure,  and  not  alone 
the  rudiments  of  civilization  but  evidences  of  culture  were 
plainly  visible  at  the  dawn  of  history,  properly  so-called. 


ABORIGINAL  ROCK-CARVINGS. 


i 


EGYPTIAN  AFTERGLOW. 


**  'Tis  sunset  Kour  on  Egypt's  arid  plains. 

Each  mighty  pyramid,  with  purpling  crest. 
Looms  dark  against  the  glory  in  the  wesL 

Swiftly  the  heaven's  beauty  dies  and  wsuies. 

Till  sudden  dsu'kness  its  rich  splendor  stains. 

Then  slowly,  dawn^like,  on  the  shadows  rest 
Fsdnt  crimsons,  violets,  tint  to  tint  soft  pressed; 

They  brighten,  glow,  then  fade  and  darkness  reigns- 

P.  F.  Gamp. 


12 


EGYPT 


PREFATORY  CHAPTER 

HERE  never  was  a  time  when  men  were  so  in- 
tensely interested  in  origins  and  development  as 
they  are  today.  Our  biologists  are  studying  life 
in  all  its  forms,  from  the  single  cell  to  the  highest 
mammal.  Our  psychologists  are  studying  mind — what 
consciousness  is;  how  attention,  habit,  memory  are 
formed.  Our  physicists,  not  content  with  studying  gravitation, 
heat,  light,  electricity,  etc.,  are  inquiring  into  the  very  nature 
of  matter  itself,  and,  together  with  the  astronomers  and  geol- 
ogists, are  telling  us  not  only  how  the  earth,  but  also  how  the 
universe  came  to  be.  Our  anthropologists,  ethnologists  and 
sociologists  are  just  as  actively  and  patiently  inquiring  into 
the  origins  of  customs,  institutions,  law,  religion,  society.  The 
historian  is  no  longer  content  to  rehearse  a  story  because  it  is 
interesting;  he  insists  upon  getting  at  the  original  documents, 
at  the  facts  in  the  case,  not  at  theories.  The  savage,  when 
asked  why  he  observes  a  certain  custom  or  performs  some  cere- 
mony whose  meaning  he  does  not  know,  replies  that  his  an- 
cestors did  the  same.  To  inquire  beyond  this  seems  to  him 
more  than  useless.  Until  the  beginning  of  our  modern  scientific 
age  the  answer  to  similar  questions  among  ourselves — as  it  still 
is  among  the  Chinese,  would  have  been,  "it  is  written,"  "thus 
saith  the  Lord,"  "Aristotle,  Plato  or  St.  Augustine  thought  so 
and  so  about  the  matter."  But  today  all  is  difTerent.  We  are  no 
longer  content  to  knoAV  what  is  written,  or  what  somebody  thinks 
about  a  subject,  we  insist  upon  demonstrating  or  having  some 
one  demonstrate  for  us,  the  proposition  put  forward.  We  want 
the  "facts."  Our  whole  system  of  education  encourages  pupils 
to  perform  experiments  and  thus  verify  the  statements  they  may 
find  in  their  text-books  on  chemistry,  physics  and  other  sut>jects. 


14  THE   WORIJ)'S   PROGRESS. 

It  is  the  inductive  method  which  gives  the  pupil  the  facts  and 
encourages  him  to  draw  his  own  conclusions. 

But  what  has  Egypt  to  offer  the  modem  man  ?  Does  it  inter- 
est any  but  specialists  and  archaeologists  ?  Apparently  it  does, 
for  every  year  sees  an  increase  of  tourists  in  the  Nile  valley. 
It  is  true  many  go  there  because  of  the  ideal  climate  or  because 
it  has  become  the  fashion  to  do  so.  But  if  we  look  at  the  mat- 
ter more  closely,  do  we  not  see  other,  deeper  reasons?  Is  it 
not  true  that  many  go  because  in  their  youth  they  had  read 
about  the  pyramids  and  the  wonderful  temples  of  Egypt,  and 
because  now  when  they  have  the  opportunity  they  desire  to 
see  these  for  themselves?  The  architect,  the  engineer,  the  con- 
tractor, all  are  interested  in  these  masses  of  masonry.  Again, 
when  we  are  beginning  to  reclaim  the  desert  areas  in  our  west- 
em  states,  Egypt  with  its  system  of  irrigation,  older  than  his- 
tory, arouses  a  new  interest.  The  fact  is  that  in  spite  of  our 
practical  nature,  as  some  would  put  it,  or  rather,  as  we  prefer 
to  have  it,  because  of  our  intensely  practical  nature,  we  are 
beginning  to  feel  the  necessity  of  inquiring  into  the  activities 
of  other  peoples,  be  they  past  or  present,  not  only  because  such 
inquiry  will  satisfy  our  curiosity  or  enliven VDur  dull  moments, 
but  because  of  the  lasting  benefit  we  derive  from  it.  We  insist 
upon  knowing  the  people  who  have  achieved,  who  have  accom- 
plished things,  and  surely  the  pyramids  alone  would  demon- 
strate that  the  ancient  Egyptians  belonged  to  this  class. 

Man  attained  to  civilisation  for  the  first  time  in  the  Nile 
valley.  We  study  the  natives  of  Australia  and  Africa  for  social 
origins.  It  is  here  we  can  gather  most  information  about  the 
primitive  forms  of  marriage  and  the  growth  of  the  family ;  about 
the  beginnings  of  dress  and  ornament ;  about  primitive  warfare, 
magic,  religion  and  early  forms  of  tribal  government.  Just 
as  we  pay  special  attention  to  the  development  of  the  mind  of 
the  child  in  the  study  of  psychology,  so  we  feel  that  the  best 
way  to  study  the  complex  features  of  our  civilization  is  to 
observe  the  simpler  life  of  the  savage.  But  the  child  becomes  a 
man  while  the  savage  has  not  yet  developed  a  civilization  before 
our  eyes.  The  growth  of  the  race  is  slow.  It  is  only  when  we 
are  able  to  observe  a  race  through  a  period  of  thousands  of  years 
that  it  is  possible  to  see  it  grow  from  infancy  to  manhood.  We 
can  follow  our  own  ancestors  from  the  time  they  had  advanced 


EGYPT.  15 

little  beyond  the  stage  of  savagery,  but  it  is  to  be  observed  that 
they  did  not  develop  but  borrowed  their  civilization.  Of  the 
beginnings  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  whose  civilization  our 
ancestors  took  over,  we  know  but  little,  but  in  the  case  of  the 
Egyptians  matters  are  different.  We  are  able,  by  means  of 
archaeological,  monumental  and  inscriptional  remains  to  follow 
them  as  they  developed  in  the  Nile  valley,  unassisted  by  any 
outside  civilization — for  none  existed,  the  world's  first  great 
civilized  state. 

"It  may  appear  paradoxical  to  affirm  that  it  is  in  arid  districts, 
where  agriculture  is  most  arduous,  that  agriculture  began ;  yet 
the  affirmation  is  not  to  be  gainsaid  but  rather  supported  by 
history,  and  is  established  beyond  reasonable  doubt  by  the  evi- 
dence of  desert  organisms  and  organizations."^  This  lesson 
drawn  from  the  life  of  the  Papago  Indians  might  just  as  well 
have  been  drawn  from  Egyptian  life.  Egypt  is  practically 
rainless,  but  the  soil  of  the  Nile  valley,  ever  renewed  by  the  silt 
deposited  by  the  yearly  inundation,  yields  enormous  returns 
provided  only  man  uses  his  energy  and  ingenuity.  Long  be- 
fore our  written  records  begin  the  Egyptians  had  developed 
an  extensive  system  of  irrigation.  Thus  by  arduous  toil,  organ- 
ized and  watched  over  by  the  growing  state,  Egypt  developed 
an  enormous  agricultural  wealth — the  foundation  upon  which 
her  civilization  was  built.  With  Egypt  it  was  not  a  question  of 
the  "conservation"  but  of  the  development  of  her  natural  re- 
sources. The  Egyptian  was  forced  to  keep  up  a  continuous 
struggle  with  nature  and  as  a  result  he  was  always  practical. 
Egypt  has  been  called  the  mother  of  the  mechanical  arts.  It 
is  not  surprising  that  the  imaginative  Greeks,  when  they  became 
acquainted  with  the  material  civilization  of  Egypt,  her  pyra- 
mids and  temples,  her  system  of  irrigation,  her  craftsmanship, 
conceived  an  exaggerated  opinion  of  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyp- 
tians. Even  today  we  hear  surmises  of  "lost  arts"  which  were 
used  in  the  construction  of  the  pyramids.  But  we  know  better. 
The  pyramids  were  built  by  the  brawn  of  tens  of  thousands  of 
serfs,  without  the  use,  it  would  seem,  of  even  a  pulley ;  not  even 
the  roller  seems  to  have  been  known.  On  the  other  hand,  we 
have  only  to  visit  the  museums  here  and  abroad — especially 

*  W.  J.  McGee,  "The  Beginning  of  Agriculture,"  American  Anthropo- 
logist, 8,  375. 


i6  THE  world's  progress. 

the  one  in  Cairo,  to  realize  the  marvellous  skill  the  Egyptian 
workman  acquired  in  the  carving  of  wood,  ivory  and  stone,  and 
in  the  working  of  metals.  Our  architects  are  studying  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  greatest  geniuses  Egyptian  culture  produced,  and 
our  students  of  design  may  learn  many  a  lesson  from  the  work- 
manship of  her  artisans. 

Not  long  since  it  was  not  unusual  to  see  ridicule  heaped 
upon  the  theories  of  the  "high-brows"  by  our  farmers,  manu- 
facturers and  other  "practical"  men.  Probably  our  system  of 
education  was  at  fault.  Nevertheless,  these  same  farmers, 
manufacturers  and  other  practical  men  are  beginning  to  realize 
the  importance  of  the  researches  and  investigations  of  the 
specialists.  We  cannot  hope  to  compete  with  the  industries 
of  the  Germans  which  rest  upon  a  scientific  basis,  as  long  as 
ours  are  conducted  by  "rule-of-thumb"  methods.  There  is  no 
better  opportunity  offered  anywhere  for  observing  the  limita- 
tions of  an  exclusively  practical  system  of  education  than  the 
study  of  Egyptian  learning. 

The  Egyptian  regarded  learning  as  a  means  to  an  end,  and 
that  end  was  never  the  increase  of  the  sum  of  human  knowledge 
or  the  advancement  of  humankind,  but  always  freedom  from 
manual  labor.  Next  to  a  few  folk  songs,  preserved  in  the  decora- 
tions of  Fifth  Dynasty  tombs — ^by  mere  accident,  for  a  scribe 
would  never  have  thought  of  preserving  them,  the  oldest  litera- 
ture of  the  Egyptians  which  has  come  down  to  us  consists  of  the 
precepts  of  Kagemni  and  Ptah-hotep.^  This  wisdom  of  the 
viziers  of  the  Pharaohs  of  the  Fourth  and  Fifth  Dynasties,  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  books  of  instruction  from  all  periods  of 
Egyptian  history,  and  consists  largely  of  rules  of  conduct.  The 
sole  object  of  an  education  was  to  obtain  a  position  as  scribe 
or  secretary  of  higher  or  lower  rank  in  the  government  service, 
and  this  could  only  be  done  by  gaining  and  keeping  the  favor 
of  the  Pharaoh  or  of  one  of  his  officials.  These  scribes  never 
weary  of  telling  of  the  superiority  of  their  calling  over  that  of 
the  man  who  must  labor  with  his  hands,  who  is  like  a  heavily 
laden  ass  driven  by  the  scribes.  Of  course  we  too  recognize 
the  g^lf  fixed  between  the  educated  and  the  unlettered,  but  we 
try  to  bridge  it.  It  is  not  probable  that  many  of  the  laboring 
classes  knew  more  than  the  barest  elements  of  reading  and 

'See  page  164. 


EGYPT.  17 

writing".  The  Egyptian  script  was  exceedingly  cumbrous,  and 
probably  few  would  have  seen  any  use  in  mastering  it,  even  if 
they  had  had  the  time,  unless  they  intended  to  enter  upon  a  scribal 
career.  Of  course  many  such  careers  were  open,  for  the  elaborate 
bureaucratic  system  of  administration  demanded  the  services 
of  a  host  of  secretaries  and  overseers.  In  time  these  constituted 
a  distinct  middle  class,  largely  recruited,  we  may  be  sure,  from 
the  laboring  class  below.  The  Egyptian  was  always  ready  to 
recognize  and  reward  ability,  no  matter  where  it  was  found. 
Now  a  Vv'ord  about  the  limitations  of  such  a  view  of  education. 
As  already  indicated,  the  object  of  an  education  was  to  gain 
a  government  position.  In  Egypt,  as  elsewhere,  the  chief  end 
of  government,  in  the  eyes  of  the  officials  at  least,  was  the  col- 
lection of  revenues.  Taxes  were  in  kind  and  as  a  result  the 
work  of  the  scribe  consisted  in  finding  out  the  amount  of  the 
harvest  and  deducting  the  king's  share.  The  extensive  mining 
and  building  operations  conducted  by  the  Pharaohs  required 
the  services  of  hundreds  of  scribes  and  overseers  to  superin- 
tend the  work  and  distribute  the  rations  of  the  armies  of  work- 
men employed  in  these  projects.  In  this  work  the  scribe 
developed  a  remarkable  facility  with  figures.  But  he  never 
advanced  beyond  concrete  examples.  Multiplication  and  divi- 
sion in  our  sense  of  th".  terms  were  unknown  to  him,  their  places 
were  taken  by  addition  and  subtraction.  For  example :  to  multi- 
ply seven  by  nine,  the  Egyptian  scribe  would  proceed,  i  •  7  7, 
2.7=14,  2  .  14  =  28,  2  .  28  =  56,  etc.  That  is  he  always 
doubled  the  last  figure.  It  was  nothing  but  addition.  He 
wrote  his  results  as  follows: 


I 

7 

2 

14 

4 

•     28 

8 

56 

16 

112 

and  then  found  which  of  the  numbers  of  the  first  column  added 
together  would  give  the  sum  9.  These  were  8  and  i.  He 
then  added  the  corresponding  numbers  in  the  second  column 
and  got  the  result,  56  +  7  =  63.  So  50-^-7  would  have 
looked  like  this:  50  —  28  =  22;  22  —  14  =  8;  8  —  7=i. 
The  result  was  (4  4-2-}-  i)  sevens  with  i  as  remainder.   The 


1 8  THE  world's  progress. 

Egyptian  scribe  could  not  handle  fractions  other  than  those  with 
one  as  numerator.  Two-thirds  was  the  only  exception.  The 
Egyptian  knew  that  the  area  of  a  rectangle  was  to  be  found  by 
multiplying  the  two  adjacent  sides  together,  and  that  the  area 
of  a  right  angled  triangle  was  equal  to  half  the  area  of  a  rect- 
angle whose  base  and  altitude  were  equal  respectively  to  the 
sides  adjacent  to  the  right  angle.  When  his  problem  was  to 
find  the  area  of  an  isosceles  triangle  he  applied  the  same 
rule,  that  is,  multiplied  the  base  by  one  of  the  sides  and  divided 
by  two.  Here  theory  might  have  helped  him,  had  he  been  able 
to  develop  it.  He  never  reached  the  conception  of  base  and 
altitude.  His  rule  for  finding  the  area  of  a  circle  is  worth  men- 
tioning. He  took  the  diameter,  subtracted  one-ninth  of  it 
therefrom,  and  squared  the  result.  In  a  word,  he  had  not  come 
far  from  the  correct  value  of  '^.  But  the  Egyptian  always  dealt 
with  concrete  examples,  he  never  was  able  to  generalize  and 
carry  his  mathematics  into  the  theoretical.  As  a  result  he 
never  attained  scientific  accuracy.  Not  that  he  did  not  set 
himself  difficult  problems.  Indeed  many  of  them  are  so  compli- 
cated that  they  required  an  immense  amount  of  reckoning,  by 
his  methods,  to  solve.  Without  giving  his  solution,  let  me  add 
one  more  of  his  problems :  "A  man  owns  7  cats ;  each  cat  eats 
7  mice  daily ;  each  mouse  eats  7  ears  of  grain ;  each  ear  contains 
7  grains;  each  grain  gives  a  sevenfold  return  in  the  harvest. 
What  is  the  sum  of  the  cats,  mice,  ears  and  grains  ?" 

The  Egyptians  observed  the  stars.  They  had  names  for  all 
of  the  principal  constellations;  knew  the  circumpolar  stars 
from  those  which  at  times  disappeared  below  the  horizon,  but 
they  never  seem  to  have  noticed  the  difference  between  fixed 
stars  and  planets.  They  invented  a  calendar  with  a  year  of  365 
days  as  early  as  4241  B.C.  This  was  based  upon  the  heliacal 
rising  of  Sirius  (Sothis)  coincident  with  the  beginning  of  the 
inundation.  But  they  never  discovered,  or  if  they  did,  never 
bothered  about  the  fact  that  their  year  was  one- fourth  of  a  day 
too  short.  They  were  deeply  interested  in  medicine,  and  their 
recipes  prescribe  everything  that  can  be  swallowed.  Many  of 
these  were  borrowed  by  the  Greeks  and  from  them  have  come 
down  into  the  folk-medicine  of  modern  Europe.  No  doubt 
many  of  their  remedies  were  helpful,  but  magic  always  played 
the  most  important  role  in  their  medicine,  as  it  does  among  aU 


EGYPT.  19 

primitive  peoples  and  as  it  did  in  our  own  until  the  beginning 
of  our  modern  scientific  age. 

The  progress  made  by  the  Egyptians  in  the  development  of 
a  purer  conception  of  religion  will  be  discussed  at  length  in 
the  body  of  this  volume,  especially  on  pages  131  and  following. 
The  Egyptians  were  not  far  from  monotheism. 

But  the  Egyptian  culture  must  be  studied  as  a  whole.  Time 
was  when  the  study  of  the  civilization  of  Egypt,  Babylonia  and 
Assyria,  together  with  that  of  the  Hebrews,  was  regarded  as  a 
sort  of  introduction  to  the  study  of  history,  which  began  with 
the  Greeks  and  Romans.  Much  was  said  of  the  immovable 
East.  It  was  supposed  that  progress  was  exceedingly  slow 
there  as  compared  with  that  in  the  West.  But  our  wider 
knowledge  of  the  history  and  life  of  these  peoples  shows  how 
false  this  conception  was.  We  can  trace  Egyptian  civilization 
from  its  beginnings  in  the  palaeolithic  and  neolithic  ages ;  see  it 
develop  from  many  petty  states  into  an  absolute  monarchy; 
follow  it  as  it  emerges  after  a  period  of  anarchy  into  a  Feudal 
Age,  and  as  it  rises  after  two  centuries  of  foreign  oppression 
into  a  mighty  empire  pushing  its  southern  frontier  away  into 
Nubia  and  its  northern  one  to  the  Euphrates.  Meanwhile 
we  are  not  neglecting  to  study  the  economic  and  intellectual 
forces  at  work.  Society  has  been  developing  steadily.  A 
monotheistic  religion  has  been  growing  up.  But  Egypt  has 
reached  her  zenith  and  the  age  of  decline  sets  in.  In  time  she 
falls  before  foreign  invasion,  because  chc  has  used  up  her  vital-" 
ity.  Her  civilization  is  not  to  be  studied  as  a  preliminary  to 
anything  else,  but  as  the  achievement  of  a  gifted  race.  Of 
course  we  are  to  compare  her  progress  with  that  of  other  peo- 
ples, to  see  the  faults  of,  but  also  to  appreciate  the  good  in,  her 
culture. 


THE  SPIRAL  DECORATION   OF  SCARABS. 

EGYPT. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Its  Antiquity. 

MONG  Old  Testament  stories  familiar  through- 
out the  Christian  World,  a  general  favorite  with 
boys  and  girls  from  their  earliest  years  is  the 
story  ot  Joseph — a  seventeen  year  old  lad,  the 
son  of  his  father's  later  life,  and  most  loved  of  all  his 
children.  In  Genesis  we  may  read  how  his  brothers  be- 
came jealous  of  Joseph  because  of  Jacob's  care  for  him,  and 
their  anger  increased  when  the  boy  related  a  dream  wherein  he 
had  seen  himself  exalted  to  high  position  while  his  family  and 
all  the  world  did  honor  to  him. 

His  people  led  a  pastoral  life,  and  when  the  dry  season 
came,  the  older  brothers  went  away  with  the  flocks  in  search 
of  fresh  pastures.  Soon  the  father'  grew  anxious  to  hear 
from  them,  and  sent  Joseph  to  locate  them  and  then  return 
to  tell  him  how  they  fared.  After  some  searching,  Joseph 
drew  near  the  flocks  and  was  seen  afar  by  his  brothers.  They 
were  now  many  miles  from  home,  and  what  they  might  da 
was  not  likely  to  reach  the  ears  of  those  who  knew  them. 
So  they  plotted  to  kill  Joseph  and  ascribe  the  deed  to  some 
wild  beast.  Reuben,  more  compassionate,  urged  that  they 
should  not  have  this  awful  crime  upon  their  hands,  but  sug- 
gested instead  that  they  cast  him  into  a  pit,  from  which  plight, 
we  are  told,  Reuben  intended  to  deliver  him.  The  others 
yielded  to  his  plea,  and  Joseph  was  cast  into  the  pit.  Shortly 
after,  a  caravan'  came  in  sight,  passing  on  its  way  to  Egypt. 
At  once  a  surer  way  of  disposing  of  Joseph  suggested  itself — 
they  would  sell  him  as  a  slave  and  free  themselves  from 
further  responsibility  in  the  matter.  The  company  of  mer- 
chantmen drew  nearer,  journeying  with  thgir  spices  and  their 


The  story  of  egvpt.  21 

wares.     To  them  Joseph  was  sold,  and  with  them  he  "  went 
down  into  Egypt." 

His  varying  fortune  for  the  next  few  years  is  briefly  told. 
Now  we  see  him  a  trusted  servant,  given  responsibility  and 
acquitting  himself  with  credit  ;  then  upon  false  accusation,  he 
is  cast  into  prison,  but  even  here  he  wins  the  confidence  of  his 
jailer.  Here  too,  he  establishes  a  fame  for  the  interpretation 
of  dreams,  which  ability  is  soon  noised  abroad.  So  widely 
did  it  become  known  that  when  the  king's  counsellors  were 
unable  to  explain  his  repeated  vision,  from  prison  walls  Joseph 
was  summoned  to  reveal  its  hidden  meaning.  He  thereupon 
foretold  the  seven  years  of  plenty  and  the  seven  years  of 
famine  through  which  the  land  of  Egypt  would  soon  pass. 
The  king,  impressed  with  his  wisdom  and  sincerity,  chose 
him  steward  of  the  realm. 

All  know  the  outcome  of  the  tale — how  Joseph  soon  be- 
came second  in  importance  to  the  king  himself,  trusted,  de- 
pended upon  and  loved  ;  how  he  bought  up  the  heavy  yield 
of  grain  throughout  the  realm  for  seven  years  and  hoarded 
it  in  "  store  cities,"  until  he  ceased  to  chronicle  the  amount, 
so  vast  it  was.  Then  when  the  years  of  famine  came,  he 
sold  again  to  those  who  would  buy,  and  when  their  money 
was  exhausted,  he  took  their  flocks,  their  lands  and  their 
slaves  as  security — yes,  even  the  service  of  citizens  was  pledged 
to  the  king  in  exchange  for  food. 

It  was  during  these  tedious  years  of  want  that  Joseph 
learned  of  his  family,  when  the  same  brothers  who  had  done 
him  so  much  injury  came  into  Egypt  to  buy  grain,  and  through 
his  generosity  they  were  united  once  more,  and  at  his  invitation 
brought  their  families  to  dwell  near  him.  The  king  commanded 
that  they  be  well  provided  for  and  they  prospered  and  in- 
creased  in   number. 

Years  passed  and  Jacob  died,  and  at  last  Joseph  himself. 
Then  we  are  told  there  came  to  the  throne  a  king  "  who  knew 
not  Joseph.  "  He  looked  with  dismay  upon  a  foreign  people 
growing  up  within  his  country,  whose  traditions,  customs, 
and  religious  beliefs  were  wholly  unlike  those  of  his  own 
nation.  Then  followed  the  years  of  oppression  when  he  sought 
to  exterminate  the  race  with  relentless  work  and  cruel  perse- 
cution.   Within  recent  years,  one  of  the  "store  cities,"  supposed 


23  ThS  world's  progress. 

by  some  scholars  to  have  been  built  by  the  Hebrews  during  this 
period  of  their  life  in  Egypt,  has  been  unearthed — verifying 
the  account  of  their  bondage  as  preserved  to  us  in  the  book  of 
Genesis. 

It  is  difficult  for  us  to  realize  the  vast  antiquity  of  Egypt. 
When  Joseph  as  a  seventeen  year  old  boy  came  with  that 
band  of  merchantmen  into  its  borders  more  years  had  passed 
over  its  civilization  than  have  passed  since  Homer  told  his 
stories  of  gods  and  heroes  to  the  Hellenes  who  gathered  around 
to  hear  him.  The  three  great  pyramids  had  stood  in  their 
majestic  calm  under  more  moons  than  have  risen  and  set  since 
Christ  was  born  in  Bethlehem  of  Judea  ;  and  the  Sphinx  had 
watched,  for  how  many  years  men  cannot  tell.  When  we 
come  to  the  land  of  Egypt,  we  are  appalled  by  its  age.  America 
was  discovered  about  five  hundred  years  ago  ;  England  has 
been  inhabited  for  more  than  twenty  hundred  years,  but  Egypt 
counts  its  history  back  for  thousands  of  years  and  loses  itself 
in  tradition  and  legendary  periods  preceding  these.  The  story 
of  Joseph,  told  in  Genesis,  the  book  of  earliest  Biblical  tradi- 
tion, records  an  incident  early  in  the  history  of  the  Hebrews, 
but  the  Egyptians  had  already  been  governed  by  many  ruling 
dynasties  and  had  known  the  oppression  of  invading  kings 
whom  they  had  at  last  driven  from  the  throne.  They  had  built 
colossal  structures  which  were  to  perpetuate  the  memories  of 
their  mighty  kings  as  well  as  to  provide  their  everlasting  tombs, 
and  these  stand  today  the  marvel  of  all  who  gaze  upon  their 
vast  proportions.  They  had  developed  a  complex  religious 
system,  and  had  reached  some  perfection  in  decorative  art. 
Egypt  had  long  been  the  granary  of  the  civilized  world  and 
consequently  of  great  importance  from  an  economic  stand- 
point. The  Nile,  that  wonderful  river  which  caused  Herodotus 
to  exclaim  :  "  Egypt  is  the  gift  of  the  Nile  !  " — a  sentiment 
quoted  ever  since  by  all  who  have  written  about  the  country 
or  the  river — had  cut  down  its  river  bed  and  had  already 
built  up  a  rich  soil  in  the  valley  by  its  deposits,  left  by  the  over- 
flow of  countless  seasons. 

We  look  today  upon  the  cathedrals  of  Europe,  standing 
as  they  have  since  the  Norman  conquest,  even,  in  some  in- 
stances antedating  it,  and  we  exclaim  that  the  builders  of  these 
impressive  edifices  built  for  ages  to  come.  Yet  in  Egypt 
the  pyramids  have  stood   for  almost  five  thousand   years. 


THS  STORY  Ot  KGYPT.  23 

and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  they  will  proclaim  to  many  millenniums 
more,  the  wealth  and  power  of  the  Pharaohs  who  raised  them 
for  their  everlasting-  abodes.  Hundreds  of  years  dwindle  in 
the  contemplation  of  thousands,  and  these  are  ever  before  the 
student  of  Egyptian  history. 

Physical  Gkography  of  Egypt. 

Egypt  is  located  in  the  northeastern  corner  of  Africa.  To 
the  east  lies  the  Isthmus  of  Suez — the  pathway  to  Asia,  and 
the  Red  Sea — separated  by  a  range  of  mountains  from  the  Val- 
ley of  the  Nile.  To  the  south  lies  Nubia,  and  to  the  west 
stretches  away  for  hundreds  of  weary  miles  the  Sahara,  the  old 
bed  of  an  extinct  ocean. 

Egypt  is  by  no  means  the  country  it  is  sometimes  repre- 
sented to  be  on  geographical  maps.  That  Egypt  someone 
has  called  a  "  geographical  fiction."  On  the  contrary,  it  has 
always  consisted  simply  of  the  Nile  valley  and  delta.  It  is 
about  one-half  as  large  again  as  the  state  of  Massachusetts, 
containing  approximately  12,000  square  miles. 

The  Nile  is  unlike  any  river  of  our  land.  It  takes  its 
rise  in  a  chain  of  lakes  near  the  Equator.  These  lakes  lie  in 
a  heavy  rain  belt  and  at  a  certain  season  the  rainfall  is  so 
constant  that  the  river  is  greatly  swollen.  It  is  joined  by 
tributaries  which  in  turn  are  overflowing  with  the  melting 
snows  of  mountains  wherein  they  take  their  rise,  and  alto- 
gether the  main  river  continues  so  to  increase  that  it  overflows 
its  channel  and  spreads  out  into  the  valley  on  either  side. 

In  America  we  know  how  disastrous  spring  floods  fre- 
quently become,  but  here  the  overflow  is  violent,  tearing  down 
bridges  and  embankments,  bringing  injury  rather  than  benefit 
to  the  land.  In  Egypt  the  rise  of  the  Nile  is  gradual ;  dwellings 
are  built  on  elevations  of  land  or  on  the  outskirts  of  the  valley. 

Without  the  yearly  inundation  there  would  be  no  food  to 
maintain  the  dense  population  of  the  country. 

During  the  period  of  high  water  the  Nile  is  heavily  loaded 
with  mud.  When  the  river  recedes,  this  fertile  silt  is  left 
upon  the  surface  of  the  land.  This,  and  this  alone,  has  made 
the  land  of  Egypt  different  from  the  deserts  on  either  side 
of  it.  And  now  we  see  how  truly  Herodotus  spoke  when  he 
exclaimed  that  Egypt  is  the  gift  of  the  Nile.     Containing 


24  THE   WORI^D'S   PROGRESS. 

about  the  same  number  of  miles  as  our  state  of  Maryland, 
for  numberless  years  this  little  country  has  been  the  granary 
for  surrounding  lands.  Thus  may  we  judge  of  its  remarkable 
fertility. 

Much  of  the  loam  which  the  river  has  brought  down  has 
been  spread  over  the  valley,  but  a  considerable  amount  has 
been  emptied  each  year  at  the  mouth  of  the  stream,  forming 
in  course  of  time  a  delta, — so  called  by  the  Greeks  from  its 
resemblance  to  their  letter  delta.  Because  of  its  long  threading 
valley  and  this  delta,  Egypt  has  sometimes  been  likened  to 
a  lily  ;  the  delta  representing  the  flower  and  the  valley  the 
stem. 

After  flowing  four  thousand  miles,  the  waters  of  the  Nile 
find  their  way  at  last  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  towards 
this  sea  the  land  gradually  slopes.  Passing  southward  through 
Egypt  from  the  Mediterranean,  one  journeys  more  than  a 
hundred  miles  through  the  delta.  This  great  plain  has  been 
formed  entirely  of  the  mud  washed  down  by  the  mighty  river. 
Each  year  for  countless  ages  it  has  been  extended  at  least 
eight  feet  farther  into  the  sea,  and  thus  its  area  continues  to 
increase.  This  portion  of  the  country,  or  this  delta,  is  frequent- 
ly referred  to  as  Lower  Egypt. 

Continuing  south,  one  enters  the  valley.  This  narrow 
strip  of  fertile  land  measures  about  six  hundred  miles  from 
the  apex,  or  southern  extremity  of  the  delta,  to  the  first  cata- 
ract. The  bed  of  the  Nile  is  very  irregular  in  its  upper  course 
and  falls  over  ten  cataracts  in  its  downward  flow  before  the 
southern  boundary  of  Upper  Egypt  is  reached.  In  width  the 
valley  varies  from  one  to  ten  miles.  This  portion  of  the  country 
is  known  as  Upper  Egypt. 

Imagine,  if  you  can,  a  river  flowing  through  a  valley 
skirted  on  either  side  by  deserts  whose  boundaries  are  so 
abruptly  marked  that  one  may  stand  with  one  foot  in  the 
fertile,  life-producing  valley,  and  with  the  other  in  the  shift- 
ing sands  of  desert  waste.  On  the  east  lies  the  Arabian 
desert,  while  the  many  colored  peaks  of  a  lofty  mountain 
range  form  a  well  nigh  impassable  barrier  between  it  and  the 
Red  Sea,  save  where  famous  mountain  passes  lead  to  the 
waters  beyond. 

Nubian  mountains,  to  the  south,  supplied  most  of  the  gold 


THE  STOKY   OF   EGYPT  2$ 

and  precious  ore  used  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  were 
held  in  greatest  dread  by  those  taken  in  captivity,  for  the 
work  within  them  was  relentless  and  none  ever  returned  when 
once  sent  to  join  the  hopeless,  heartsick  throng  of  laborers 
employed  by  the  king  to  develop  the  mines. 

The  Sahara  west  of  the  valley  is  not  a  flat  region,  but  is 
made  up  of  shifting  sands,  hills  and  rocks  of  limestone.  It  is 
plain  that  the  Valley  of  the  Nile  was  once  a  part  of  this 
desert,  but  the  river,  with  its  tremendous  volume,  set  to  work 
to  cut  down  its  bed.  The  channel,  so  worn  down,  is  the  present 
valley.  "  Egypt  is  the  temporarily  uncovered  bed  of  the  Nile, 
which  it  reclaims  and  recovers  during  a  portion  of  each  year, 
when  Egypt  disappears  from  view,  save  where  human  labor 
has  by  mounds  and  embankments  formed  artificial  islands  that 
raise  their  heads  above  the  waste  of  waters,  for  the  most 
part  crowned  with  buildings.  "» 

It  is  plain,  as  we  note  the  nature  of  the  land  through  which 
the  great  river  flows,  that  no  rich  soil  would  be  accumulated 
from  the  banks  it  washes  in  its  downward  course.  We  must 
look  to  the  high  tablelands  where  the  two  large  tributaries, 
the  Eiue  Nile  and  the  Atbara,  have  their  beginnings,  to  find 
the  m.ountain  loam  that  has  given  the  valley  a  fertile  soil, 
thirty  feet  in  depth,  and  has  built  up  the  grain-producing  delta, 
one  hundred  miles  in  length  and  more  in  breadth.  Again 
and  again  we  are  forced  to  remember  that  Egypt  is  indeed 
the  gift  of  the  Nile. 

Yearly  Rise  ot  the  Nile. 

This  brings  us  back  once  more  to  the  subject  of  the  inunda- 
tions. Early  in  June  the  Nile  begins  to  rise  below  the  first 
cataract.      In  July  it  has  become  swollen  throughout  its  course. 

The  highest  water  mark  is  reached  about  September 
fifteenth.  By  the  first  of  November  the  river  begins 
to  recede  and  is  at  low  water  again  by  the  last  of  January, 
although  it  continues  to  diminish  until  the  following  June. 

Nilometers  are  used  to  register  the  river's  rise.  These  are 
wells  in  which  the  water  can  fluctuate  freely,  with  a  stone 
column    in  the  center  marked  as  a  scale.    The  ell  is  the  unit 

^Rawllnson;  Ancient  Egypt,  p.  6, 


26  THE  world's  progress. 

of  measure,  being  equal  to  about  twenty-one  and  one-third 
inches.  At  low  water  the  river  registers  about  seven  ells.  If 
during  the  inundation  sixteen  ells  are  reached,  all  Egypt  is 
supplied  with  water  and  fine  crops  are  assured  throughout 
the  land. 

NlI/)METERS. 

From  earliest  times  the  rise  of  the  Nile  was  closely  watched, 
and  nilometers,  which  were  under  the  special  protection  of  the 
State,  constructed.  Today  these  water  gauges  are  under  the 
inspection  of  government  officials.  Taxes  have  always  been 
apportioned  according  to  the  amount  of  the  inundation,  and  it 
has  been  to  the  interest  of  the  government,  naturally,  that  these 
be  as  heavy  as  possible.  For  this  reason  it  has  often  been 
claimed,  both  in  ancient  and  modern  times,  that  the  official  report 
of  the  high  water  mark  greatly  exceeded  the  actual  rise. 

There  is  no  rainfall  in  the  valley  and  little  in  the  delta, 
so  whatever  moisture  Egypt  receives  must  come  from  the 
Nile.  The  entire  valley  is  not  of  equal  elevation  but  becomes 
higher  as  it  spreads  out  on  either  side,  and  so  a  vast  system 
of  irrigation  must  be  maintained  to  make  good  crops  possible. 
Large  sums  have  been  expended  in  the  construction  of  dams, 
embankments  and  canals  to  contain  the  water  after  the  river 
recedes,  allowing  the  amount  thus  retained  to  be  drawn  off 
as  it  is  needed.  From  canals  it  is  drawn  off  into  trenches 
for  still  higher  land,  and  artificial  means  of  various  kinds  have 
alw^ays  been  employed  to  lift  the  water  from  one  level  to 
another.  It  is  estimated  that  tens  of  thousands  of  men  and 
boys  are  constantly  engaged  in  this  elevation  of  water  from 
one  level  to  another,  in  order  that  farms  throughout  the  valley 
may  receive  the  necessary  moisture  and  fertility.  As  rapidly 
as  one  crop  is  harvested,  the  soil  is  made  ready  for  another, 
so  that  as  many  as  five  crops  are  frequently  harvested  in  a 
year  on  a  given  acreage. 

InFIvUENCE  OE  ToPOGRAPnY. 

With  a  sea  on  the  north,  mountains  on  the  east,  cataracts 
to  the  south  and  a  desert  on  the  west,  what  would  be  the 
natural  effect  upon  the  inhabitants  of  physical  conditions  such 
as  these  prevailing  in  the  land  of  Egypt?    They  determined 


THE  STORY  OF  EGYPT.  27 

that  the  Egyptians  would  be  left  to  develop  their  civilization 
unmolested  for  the  most  part  by  outside  influences.  Such 
physical  features  account  for  the  fact  that  for  hundreds  of 
years  that  was  a  land,  not  of  war,  but  of  peace.  Think  for 
a  moment  what  natural  boundaries  have  meant  to  nations  of 
Europe.  England's  isolation  has  been  largely  due  to  her 
stormy  channel,  while  the  independence  of  the  Swiss  is  ac- 
counted for  by  their  inaccessible  mountain  home.  Austria,  on 
the  other  hand,  has  known  the  disastrous  effects  of  repeated 
invasions,  while  Poland  has  lost  her  identity  and  has  been 
appropriated  by  her  neighbors  because  of  unfortunate  situation 
and  the  lack  of  natural  defenses. 

Not  only  did  the  topography  of  the  land  surface  determine 
the  political  fortunes  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  in  a  large  de- 
gree; it  materially  influenced  the  very  temperament  of  the 
people.  Many  civilizations  have  developed  in  lands  broken 
by  hills  and  valleys,  plains  and  plateaus,  dotted  with  lakes, 
skirted  by  forests,  bays,  inlets  and  a  thousand  irregularities 
of  nature.  Few  trees  grow  in  Egypt  and  few  wild  flowers 
are  found.  Each  spot  that  might  have  become  a  tangled 
thicket  was  early  appropriated  by  the  practical  tiller  of  the 
soil.  The  valley  has  always  supported  too  dense  a  popula- 
tion to  permit  of  wilds  and  abandoned  corners,  and  only  that 
remains  uncultivated  which  has  proved  too  marshy  for  grain 
production.  Possessing  no  timber  suitable  for  ship-building, 
the  Nile  dwellers  did  not  become  sailors.  Their  communica- 
tion from  one  part  of  the  country  to  the  other  was  established 
by  means  of  small  boats  or  donkey  paths.  Rain  was  scanty 
and  mud  huts  sufficed  to  slielter  the  people.  While  constant 
attention  was  required  to  maintain  an  extensive  system  of 
irrigation,  the  soil  was  so  fertile  and  the  climate  so  favorable 
that  two,  three  and  even  more  crops  per  year  were  possible. 
Nature  worked  with — not  against — man.  "A  serene  temper, 
and  a  reliance  in  nature  were  fostered.  A  submissiveness 
was  developed  which  allowed  the  king  to  turn  all 
into  a  fighting  people,  or  into  a  body  of  forced  la- 
borers." The  absence  of  nearly  all  that  inspires,  that  stimu- 
lates the  energy  and  quickens  the  imagination  may  largely 
account  for  the  placid  temperament  of  the  ancient  Egyptians. 
Passing  their  lives  in  a  land  of  slightly  varying  processes, 


■jS  The  world's  progress. 

they  could  imagine  nothing  more  satisfactory  for  a  hereafter 
than  a  shadowy  land  wherein  the%  might  till  the  soil  as  of  yore, 
only  watei-  should  always  reach  the  needs  of  the  remotest, 
and  perplexities  removed,  each  should  complete  his  yearly 
circuit  through  eternity. 

PrKhistoric  Egypt. 

Long  before  northern  Africa  acquired  its  present  land  sur- 
face, made  up  so  largely  of  deserts,  it  is  believed  that  the 
portion  which  we  call  Egypt  was  a  fertile  country,  visited 
by  frequent  rains.  It  is  possible  that  the  Nile  did  not  exist  ; 
at  least,  it  had  not  eroded  its  present  channel,  and  the  fertility 
of  the  soil  was  due  to  causes  other  than  yearly  inundations. 
This,  we  must  remember,  was  many  geological  ages  ago  and 
cannot  be  computed  in  years  at  all.  Remains  of  rude  flint 
implements  are  scattered  over  the  heights  of  the  desert  plateau 
to  the  west  of  the  Nile  valley.  The  people  who  used  these  lived 
in  settlements,  traces  of  many  of  which  have  been  found ;  but 
of  their  relation  to  the  later  inhabitants  of  Egypt  we  know 
nothing.  They  belong  to  the  field  of  archaeology  rather  than 
to  history. 

Climatic  changes  took  place  in  Africa.  Gradually  the  coun- 
try assumed  its  present  surface  of  desert  and  valley.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  Libyan  tribes  came  from  northwestern  Africa  and 
settled  in  Egypt;  these  were  joined  later  by  Asiatic  hordes 
who  crossed  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  in  search  of  better  pastures 
for  their  flocks,  or  because  of  some  shifting  of  the  tribes  in  their 
rear.  This  inference,  based  upon  the  Semitic  elements  in  the 
grammar  and  vocabulary  of  the  language  of  the  earliest  Egyp- 
tian inscriptions,  has  been  raised  almost  beyond  doubt  by  the 
latest  researches.  From  the  mingling  of  these  Asiatic  tribes 
with  others  already  established  in  western  Africa,  sprang,  so 
it  is  believed,  the  early  Egyptians.  The  Egyptians,  however, 
like  the  ancient  Greeks,  regarded  themselves  as  autochthonous. 

Roughly  speaking,  prehistoric  events  in  Egypt  include  all 
those  preceding  the  year  4000  B.C.,  and  our  knowledge  of 
them  has  been  gathered  from  the  disclosures  of  excavated  tombs. 
While  a  discussion  of  the  Egyptian  religion  will  be  taken  up 
later  on,  some  slight  knowledge  of  it  is  necessary  at  the  start 


THE  STORY   OF    EGYPT.  29 

The  Egyptian  of  both  early  and  later  periods  believed  firmly 
in  a  future  life,  but  he  believed  further  that  the  future  wel- 
fare of  the  soul  dependea  wholly  upon  the  preservation  of 
the  body.  This  belief  led  him  to  study  how  best  to  preserve 
the  dead  body,  and  to  bring  embalming  to  such  an  art  that 
tombs  opened  today,  after  the  flight  of  five  thousand  years, 
reveal  bodies  in  complete  states  of  preservation.  Again,  it 
was  believed  that  the  same  needs  would  be  felt  in  the  future 
life  as  had  been  experienced  during  the  earthly  career.  For 
this  reason,  foods,  vessels  of  pottery,  weapons,  and  even  toilet 
preparations  for  personal  adornment,  were  enclosed  in  the 
tomb.  From  a  study  of  the  contents  of  these  ancient  tombs 
most  that  is  at  present  known  of  the  ancient  Egyptian  has 
been  ascertained. 

When  many  implements  furnished  with  ivory  handles  are 
found  in  these  tombs,  together  with  occasional  pictures  of  ele- 
phants scratched  on  bone  and  bits  of  pottery,  even  those  of  us 
who  are  neither  antiquarians  nor  historians  might  infer  that 
the  elephant  was  contemporaneous  with  the  prehistoric  Egy^p- 
tian.  Pictures  of  boats,  of  animals  and  men,  decorating  pieces 
of  pottery,  throw  light  upon  this  early  civilization. 

From  all  remains  recovered  m  tombs  antedating  the  year 
4000  B.  c.  the  following  conclusions  have  been  reached  :  these 
primitive  people  reached  considerable  skill  in  the  making  of 
pottery  and  stone  receptacl-^s.  From  copper  they  made  knives 
and  implements  ;  they  built  very  fair  river  boats,  wove  coarse 
fabrics,  although  skins  of  wild  animals  usually  constituted 
their  clothing  :  they  hunted  and  fished  and  were  to  some  extent 
an  agricultural  people.  At  this  remote  time  Egypt  was  not  the 
one  united  country  it  later  became.  It  was  composed  of  nomes, 
or  districts,  of  which  the  late  lists  give  22  for  Upper  and  20  for 
Lower  Egypt.  Their  number  probably  varied  considerably  dur- 
ing the  course  of  Egyptian  history.  In  early  times  each  nome 
probably  had  been  the  home  of  an  independent  tribe,  having 
its  own  chief  and  its  own  religious  customs.  Gradually,  how- 
ever, powerful  chieftains  conquered  other  nomes,  until  just 
before  our  written  records  begin,  the  two  more  or  less  compact 
kingdoms   of    Upper    and    Lower    Egypt    were    established. 


30 


THE  world's   progress. 


Throughout  Egyptian  history  each  locahty  held  to  its  peculiar 
religious  beliefs,  and  although  there  was  always  a  state  religion 
and  a  state  god,  dearer  to  the  hearts  of  men  were  the  deities  of 
their  own  vicinity;  and  it  is  possible  to  trace  several  religions 
in  the  one  composite  system  of  later  years. 

By  4300  B.  c.  the  men  of  the  Delta  had  divided  the  year 
into  365  days,  and  again  into  twelve  months  of  thirty  days 
each,  with  five  extra  days  for  sacred  festival.  For  six  thousand 
years,  then,  the  calendar  which  we  use  has  experienced  little 
change.  Take  it  all  in  all,  the  Egyptians  of  this  age  had  trav- 
eled far  from  the  state  of  savagery. 


'A   A 


UPPER  EGYPT. 


LOWER  EGYPT,  UPPER  AND  LOWER  EGYPT. 

ROYAL  CROWNS. 


THE  STORY  OF  EGYPT.  3I 


CLEOPATRA. 

CHAPTER  II. 
Sources  of  Egyptian  History. 

The  study  of  prehistoric  man  is  largely  a  matter  of  con- 
jecture and  has  httle  interest  for  any  save  the  archaeologist  and 
antiquarian.  There  is  yet  so  much  uncertainty  regarding  his- 
toric periods  in  Egypt  that  the  general  reader  must  leave  pre- 
historic ages  to  others.  Reaching  authentic  ages,  in  addition 
to  the  remains  discovered  within  old  tombs,  we  are  aided  by 
written  records,  and  these  fall  into  three  classes  :  facts  regard- 
ing Eg}'pt  as  recounted  in  the  Old  Testament  ;  v;ritings  of  the 
Greeks  ;  inscriptions  of  the  ancient  Eg}'ptians  themselves.  The 
light  thrown  upon  the  subject  by  old  Hebrew  writers  is  slight. 
They  chronicled  the  history  of  their  own  people  and  mentioned 
other  nations  only  when  in  some  way  the  Hebrews  came  into 
contact  with  them.  Hebrew  traditions,  customs,  and  religion 
differing  wholly  from  those  of  Egypt,  at  best  there  would  have 
been  but  little  understanding  between  them.  Biblical  comment 
upon  Egyptian  life  is  slight.  In  connection  with  the  story  of 
Joseph  we  find  that  some  facts  concerning  the  land  unwittingly 
creep  into  the  narrative.  !Modern  discovery  has  verified  such 
facts  as  are  recounted,  and  buried  and  forgotten  cities  have 
been  sought  and  located  from  mere  mention  of  them  in  some 
Old  Testament  passage.  Thus  the  Bible  is  rightly  included 
with  tlie  sources  of  Egyptian  history. 

So  far  as  treatment  of  Egy'pt  by  Greek  writers  is  concerned, 
we  can  stop  for  only  the  most  important.  Best  known  are  the 
works  of  Herodotus,  who  lived  about  five  hundred  years  before 
the  Christian  era.  He  was  the  first  to  bring  forward  the  his- 
torical style  of  writing  and  for  this  reason  he  has  been  called 
the  Father  of  History. 

Herodotus  journeyed  to  Egypt  and  abode  there  some  Httle 
time.  He  did  not  understand  the  language  of  the  country  and 
depended  largely  upon  priests  who  spoke  Greek  for  his  in- 
formation.   He  apparently  believed  all  they  told  him,  and  like- 


$7  THE   WORID'S   progress. 

wise  accepted  the  tales  with  which  his  guides  entertained  him, 
incorporating  all  their  marvelous  stories  into  his  writings. 
Consequently  much  that  is  found  in  his  works  cannot  be  cred- 
ited. Whatever  he  himself  saw  and  understood  he  recounted 
with  simplicity  and  truth,  as  recent  discoveries  have  proved. 
It  is  easy  today  to  point  out  the  failings  of  Herodotus  and  to 
wonder  that  he  was  so  ready  to  credit  all  he  heard,  but  judged 
by  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  his  writings  may  be  the  better 
understood.  We  are  told  that  portions  of  his  works  were  read 
by  him  at  the  Olympian  Games,  and  that  those  who  listened 
received  his  stories  with  enthusiasm.  To  the  imaginative 
Greeks  no  report  was  too  fanciful  to  find  credence.  They  de- 
lighted in  the  unusual  and  strange,  and  they  made  up  the 
audiences  for  which  Herodotus  wrote.  It  is  not  surprising, 
then,  that  the  Father  of  History  brought  back  to  his  country- 
men the  unique  stories  he  heard  concerning  the  Egyptians — a 
people  whose  life  and  customs  were  thought  by  foreigners  until 
long  years  after,  to  be  deeply  shrouded  in  mystery. 

More  valuable  has  proved  the  work  of  Manetho,  an  Egyp- 
tian priest  who  wrote  in  Greek.  He  is  said  to  have  made  a 
complete  list  of  Egyptian  kings  from  records  preserved  in  the 
temples.  This  list  has  been  lost  and  only  portions  quoted  from 
time  to  time  by  later  writers  have  come  down  to  us.  These 
fragments  have  been  of  much  service  to  students  of  F*gyptology. 
It  was  Manetho  who  divided  the  history  of  his  country  into 
three  periods  :  the  Old  Empire,  Middle  Empire,  and  New 
Empire.  He  also  treated  the  past  by  dynasties  rather  than 
years.  These  general  divisions  have  been  retained  by  all  subse- 
quent historians.  Those  who  are  not  specialists  in  Egyptology 
are  apt  to  be  confused  by  the  widely  divergent  systems  of 
chronology  found  in  the  different  histories  of  Egypt,  or  they 
reach  the  conclusion  that  all  is  uncertainty  in  this  field.  This 
is  not  the  place  to  enter  into  a  discussion  of  this  difficult  technical 
problem.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  in  the  opinion  of  the  best  scholars, 
Eduard  Meyer,  the  great  historian  of  the  Ancient  Orient,  has 
said  the  last  word  on  this  subject.  Contrary  opinions  notwith- 
standing, the  accession  of  Menes  and  the  beginning  of  the 
dynasties  cannot  be  placed  before  3400  B.C.,  nor  can  the  begin- 
ning of  the  twelfth  dynasty  have  been  earlier  than  2000  B.C.* 

Coming  lastly  to  monumental  inscriptions,  we  approach  the 


THE   STORY   OF   FXVPT.  33 

difficulties  of  the  Egyptian  language.  Let  us  try  to  understand 
why  it  proved  so  difficult  for  scholars  who  read  Hebrew,  Greek 
and  Latin,  together  with  some  older  tongues,  to  comprehend  the 
language  of  the  Nile  dwellers. 

In  prehistoric  times  the  Egyptians  understood  one  another 
but  it  was  long  before  they  had  any  means  of  expressing  their 
thoughts  in  writing.  It  may  have  occurred  to  them  finally  that 
the  pictures  which  they  drew  for  decorative  purposes  might  be 
used  to  convey  messages,  and  thus  they  began  to  express  simple 
meanings,  using  pictures  rather  than  symbols.  Sometimes  to 
make  doubly  sure  the  meaning  of  several  pictures,  they  added 
another  which  combined  the  meaning  of  all  into  one.  These 
added  pictures  have  been  called  determinitives,  and  the  pictures 
used  to  convey  meanings  in  this  way  are  known  as  hiero- 
glyphics. There  was  something  very  attractive  and  decorative 
about  this  method  of  writing  by  thus  picturing  out  stories,  and 
it  was  used  extensively  in  tombs  and  temples.  It  became  too 
elaborate,  however,  for  daily  use,  and  gradually  only  the  main 
outlines  of  the  original  pictures  were  used  to  represent  the  idea 
or  word.  This  system  of  writing  was  more  practical  for  con- 
stant, everyday  needs  than  the  more  ornamental  hieroglyphics. 
It  is  known  as  the  hieratic  writing.  Finally,  late  in  the  history 
of  Eg>'pt,  these  hieratics  were  veiy  much  abbreviated,  mere  dots 
and  lines  being  substituted.  This  cursory  system  is  known  as 
demotic  writing.  It  was  adopted  by  the  people  generally, 
and  might  perhaps  be  compared  to  modern  shorthand.  To 
make  the  whole  more  complicated  still,  all  three  methods  were 
used  for  different  purposes  contemporaneously. 

Hundreds  of  years  passed  ;  the  language  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians  was  forgotten  and  so,  indeed,  were  the  people  them- 
selves. In  modern  times  the  learning  of  ancient  peoples  was 
revived  and  their  writings  eagerly  read.  Quite  naturally  stu- 
dents wished  to  know  something  of  the  earliest  civilizations, 
particularly  of  the  civilization  of  the  Nile  valley.  Here  they 
were  confronted  by  what  seemed  baffling  indeed.  Three  forms 
of  writing  used  contemporaneously,  even  interchangeablv,  de- 
fied all  effort  to  decipher  them.  Attempts  were  made  to  explain 
certain  inscriptions,  but  these  explanations  w  ere  found  later  to 
have  been  far  astray.  In  1799,  one  of  Napoleon's  soldiers,  while 
excavating  in  the  mouth  of  the  Rosetta,  came  upon  a  stone 


34  THB  world's  progress. 

which  bore  a  royal  decree  written  in  three  ways  :  in  hiero- 
glyphics, in  demotic  and  in  Greek,  This  supplied  a  key  at  last, 
and  scholars  set  themselves  to  the  task  of  deciphering  ancient 
Egyptian  writings.  Other  inscriptions  written  in  two  or  more 
languages  were  found  and  verified  the  conclusions  reached 
earlier  in  the  translation  of  the  Rosetta  Stone. 

In  recent  years  a  large  number  of  inscriptions  from  tombs 
and  temples  have  been  read  and  many  rolls  of  papyrus  have 
been  translated.  This  has  enabled  historians  to  read  back, 
step  by  step,  into  far  away  ages,  and  to  carry  the  thread  of 
Egyptian  civilization  to  its  beginnings.  Maspero,  Eduard  Meyer, 
Breasted,  Petrie  and  other  painstaking  students  of  Egyptology 
have  given  their  lives  to  the  task  of  unraveling  the  past,  both  by 
deciphering  inscriptions  and  unearthing  forgotten  cities.  From 
the  tireless  efforts  of  men  like  these,  tombs  hidden  for  centuries 
have  been  recovered,  temples  and  colonnades  laid  bare  of  drift- 
ing sands,  inscriptions  transcribed  and  translated,  and  volumes 
of  scholarly  material  written  for  the  special  student,  while  at 
the  same  time  the  general  reader  may  find  much  of  interest  con- 
cerning the  life  of  a  remarkable  people  whose  works  ha\e  borne 
testimony  through  the  ages. 

Herodotus. 

The  following  lines  are  taken  from  the  pages  of  Herodotus 
wherein  he  relates  what  he  saw  and  heard  when  he  visited 
Egypt  nearly  twenty-five  hundred  years  ago. 

"  There  is  no  country  in  all  the  whole  world  that  hath  in  it 
more  marvelous  things  or  greater  works  of  buildings  and  the 
like  than  hath  the  land  of  Egypt.  And  as  the  heavens  in  this 
land  are  such  as  other  men  know  not — for  in  the  upper  parts 
there  falls  not  rain  but  once  in  a  thousand  years  or  more,  and 
in  the  lower  parts  not  often — and  the  river  is  different  from 
all  other  rivers  in  the  earth,  seeing  that  it  overflows  in  the  sum- 
mer and  is  at  its  least  in  the  winter,  so  also  do  the  manners  of 
the  Egyptians  differ  from  the  manners  of  all  other  men.  For 
among  them  the  women  buy  and  sell  in  the  market  but  the 
men  sit  at  home  and  spin.  And  even  in  this  matter  of  spin- 
ning they  do  not  as  others,  for  others  push  the  shuttle  in  the 
loom  from  below  upward,  but  these  men  push  it  from  above 
downward.    Also  the  men  carry  burdens  on  their  heads,  but  the 


THE  STORY  OF  EGYPT.  35 

women  carry  them  on  their  shoulders.  And  the  women  pray 
to  none,  neither  god  or  goddess,  but  the  men  pray  to  all.  And 
there  is  no  duty  laid  on  a  son  to  succor  father  or  mother,  if  it 
be  not  his  pleasure  to  do  it,  but  on  a  daughter  there  is  laid, 
whether  she  will  or  no. 

"  In  the  matter  of  mourning  for  the  dead,  these  folks  have 
a  strange  custom,  for  they  let  grow  the  hair  upon  the  head  and 
chin  when  they  mourn,  but  are  shaven  at  other  times.  And 
whereas  other  men  hold  themselves  better  than  the  beasts,  the 
Egyptians  have  these  in  great  honor,  keeping  them  in  their 
houses,  aye,  and  worshipping  them.  Nor  do  they  eat  the  food 
of  other  men,  holding  it  a  shame  to  be  fed  on  wheat  and  barley 
which  others  use,  and  eating  the  grain  of  millet  only  ;  and  the 
dough  that  is  made  of  it  this  they  knead,  trampling  it  with 
their  feet  ;  but  mud  and  like  things  they  are  wont  to  take  up 
with  their  hands.     .     .     . 

"  Now  as  to  the  beasts  and  the  honor  in  which  the  Egyp- 
tians hold  them,  there  are  many  strange  things  to  be  told.  The 
crocodile  some  of  the  Egyptians  hold  to  be  sacred,  but  not  all. 
And  in  every  city  where  they  hold  it,  as  in  Thebes  and  in  the 
cities  round  the  lake  Moeris,  they  keep  one  crocodile  to  which 
they  do  special  honor.  This  they  train  to  be  tame  to  the  hand, 
and  they  put  earrings  of  glass  and  gold  into  his  ears,  and  brace- 
lets on  his  forefeet,  and  give  it  a  portion  of  food  day  by  day, 
and  make  offerings  to  it,  and  when  it  dies  they  embalm  it  and 
bury  it  in  the  sacred  sepulchres.  But  the  people  that  dwell  in 
the  city  of  Elphantine  count  them  not  to  be  sacred  at  all,  but 
slay  and  eat  them.     .     .     . 

"  The  cat  the  Egyptians  hold  in  great  honor.  Of  this 
beast  there  is  a  very  marvelous  thing  to  be  told.  When  it 
chanceth  that  a  house  is  burning  a  strange  madness  cometh 
upon  the  cats,  for  they  are  very  desirous  to  leap  into  the  fire. 
And  the  Egyptians  set  guards  round  the  place  if  by  any  means 
they  may  keep  the  cats  from  their  purpose ;  nor  do  they  care  to 
quench  the  fire,  if  so  be  that  they  may  do  this  ;  but  the  cats 
nevertheless,  making  their  way  through  them,  or  leaping  over 
them,  have  their  will  and  so  perish.  Over  this  the  Egyptians 
make  great  lamentation.  If  a  cat  die  in  the  course  of  nature, 
all  that  are  in  that  house  shave  their  eyebrows  only,  but  all 
dwellers  in  a  house  where  a  dog  dies  shave  their  heads  and 


^6  THE  world's  progress. 

whole  bodies.  The  cats,  when  they  are  dead,  they  carry  away 
for  burial  to  the  city  of  Bubastis,  but  the  dogs  they  bury  each 
in  tlie  city  where  he  dies,  only  in  the  holy  sepulchres.     .     .     . 

"  For  food  the  Egyptians  have  bread  made  of  millet  as  has 
been  said  before.  They  have  wine  made  of  barley,  for  the  vine 
groweth  not  in  their  land.  Of  birds  they  eat  doves  and  pigeons, 
and  such  small  kinds  as  there  are  in  the  country. 

"...  Such  of  the  Egyptians  as  dwell  in  the  marshes  of 
the  river  have  also  for  food  the  seed  of  the  water-lilies,  which 
grow  abundantly  when  the  river  overfloweth  the  plains.  This 
seed  is  like  to  the  seed  of  a  poppy,  and  they  make  of  it  loaves 
which  they  bake  Avith  fire,  having  first  dried  it  in  the  sun.  Also 
the  root  of  this  water-Hly  (which  they  call  the  lotus)  may  be 
eaten,  being  round,  and  of  the  bigness  of  an  apple.  Other 
lilies  there  are  growing  in  the  river,  like  to  roses,  which  have  a 
fruit  very  like  to  a  wasp's  comb,  and  in  it  many  seeds  of  the 
bigness  of  an  olive,  which  the  men  eat  both  green  and  dry. 
Also  these  marsh  folk  gather  the  reeds,  and  use  the  upper  part 
for  other  things,  as  for  the  making  of  paper  and  the  like,  but 
the  lower  part,  as  much  as  a  cubit's  length  from  the  ground 
they  eat. 

"  All  the  Egyptians  worship  not  the  same  gods,  but  Isis  and 
Osiris  they  all  worship  and  this  Osiris  is  the  same  as  he  whom 
the  Greeks  call  Bacchus  or  Dionysus,  and  his  feast  is  in  all 
things  like  to  that  which  the  Greeks  keep  to  their  God,  only 
that  there  is  no  acting  of  plays.  As  for  Isis  the  Greeks  call 
her  Demeter,  that  is  to  say,  being  interpreted.  Mother 
Earth.     .     .     . 

"  Let  so  much  then  be  said  about  the  Egyptians  and  their 
customs  and  manner  of  life,  and  the  gods  whom  they  wor- 
ship. " 


The  story  of  EGYPT.  37 

i-i  rriiiiiii=9  n=io  mini =15  nn—20 

C— 100      |'=I000       1=10.000 

III!  ccnnnii!i=- 4434 

EGYPTIAN   NUMERATION. 

CHAPTER  III. 
The  Pyramid  Age. 

Menes  was  the  king  who  succeeded  in  accomplishing-  the 
unification  of  Egypt.  We  are  told  by  Manetho  that  he  was  at 
first  chief  or  governor  of  the  eighth  nome  of  Upper  Egypt, 
whose  capital  city  was  Thinis,  and  being  ambitious,  subdued 
the  surrounding  nomes,  until  at  last  all  Egypt  was  brought 
under  his  control.  No  doubt  earlier  chieftains  had  begun  the 
work  of  conquest  and  left  the  completion  to  Menes,  whose 
personality  and  executive  strength  were  sufficient  to  efface  the 
reigns  of  his  predecessors. 

Having  brought  the  Delta  under  his  control  and  crowned 
himself  with  the  white  crown  of  Upper  and  the  red  crown  of 
Lower  Egypt,  Menes  realized  that  a  capital  for  such  a  strag- 
gling kingdom  as  his  would  best  be  centrally  located.  He 
therefore  fixed  upon  a  site  just  south  of  the  apex  of  the  delta 
and  built  the  city  of  Memphis.  Quite  possibly  there  was  a  set- 
tlement here  before  this  time. 

It  happened  that  the  Nile  flowed  close  to  the  western  hills 
in  this  locality.  The  king  knew  well  that  his  capital  would  be 
safer  and  the  more  easily  protected  were  the  river  between  it 
and  possible  Asiatic  invaders  on  the  east.  So  he  undertook 
what  has  ever  since  been  regarded  as  a  bold  feat  of  engineer- 
ing; he  built  a  high  embankment  across  the  Nile  and  com- 
pelled the  stream  to  seek  a  new  course  farther  east.  Filling  in 
the  old  channel,  he  built  a  wall  around  the  new  city,  caused  a 
temple  to  be  at  once  erected  to  Ptah,  the  ancient  deity  of  the 
locality,  and  shortly  a  town  grew  up  around  it.  Thus  we  see 
the  beginnings  of  the  Old  Empire,  so  called  by  Manetho  and 
subsequent  historians.  For  convenience  scholars  sometimes 
group  Dynasties  I.  and  11.  and  Dynasties  III.  to  VI.  together, 
The  first  period  (3400-2980  B.C.)  is  called  the  Thinite  age  be- 
cause the  rulers  of  these  two  dynasties  came  from  Thinis.  The 
name  Old  Kingdom  is  then  limited  to  Dynasties  III.  to  VI. 
(2980-2475  b.c.) 

It  would  be  useless  for  us  to  attempt  to  become  familiar 


3B  THE  world's  progress. 

with  all  these  early  kings — some  fifty  in  number — with  reigns 
varying  from  one  to  many  years.  Should  we  succeed  in  col- 
lecting the  meager  facts  known  of  each  we  would  have  little 
to  repay  us  for  our  trouble.  It  is  more  to  the  purpose  that  we 
know  something  about  the  period  as  a  whole — its  general 
characteristics  and  attainments. 

During  this  period  hieroglyphic  writing  becaniC  widely  used, 
having  been  but  rarely  known  before  the  age  of  Menes.  A 
line  of  forts  was  built  along  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  to  stay  in- 
vaders from  Asia.  Tribes  on  the  south  were  brought  into 
subjection  and  pledged  service  to  Egypt  in  time  of  war.  Stone 
quarries  and  mines  were  developed  and  granite  ranges  sought 
and  found.  In  the  sixth  dynasty  one  man-of-war  sufficed  to 
accompany  the  transports  sent  to  bring  granite  for  the  kings' 
tombs  from  the  southland — a  fact  recorded  with  pride  by  the 
pharaohs,  since  it  gave  proof  of  their  far  reaching  might. 

From  earliest  times  the  Egyptian  kings  were  builders,  par- 
ticularly of  tombs,  which  during  the  Old  Empire  took  the  form 
of  pyramids.  Of  far  greater  importance  than  the  earthly  abode 
was  thought  to  be  the  tomb — the  dwelling  place  for  eternal 
years,  consequently  tombs  and  temples  received  the  attention  of 
Egypt's  kings  in  early  as  well  as  later  times. 

In  1897  the  tomb  of  Menes  was  discovered.  It  was  a  brick- 
lined  pit  containing  an  inner  chamber  of  wood.  Around  the 
mummy  of  the  pharaoh  had  been  placed  the  bodies  of  different 
members  of  his  household.  Similar  to  this  were  royal  tombs 
until  the  Third  dynasty,  when  stone  was  first  used.  To  the 
kings  of  the  Fourth  dynasty  belong  the  famous  pyramids,  un- 
surpassed by  any  subsequently  built,  and  still  today  the  wonder 
of  the  world. 

The  Egyptians  always  located  their  cemeteries  toward  the 
west.  Into  the  west  the  sun  sank  at  night,  and  by  the  same 
way  the  soul  started  upon  its  long  journey  to  the  realm  of 
Osiris,  god  of  the  future  world.  The  irregularity  of  the  Nile 
usually  made  it  possible  for  the  city  of  the  living  to  grow  up  on 
its  eastern  bank,  while  across  the  stream,  on  the  west  shore, 
lay  the  City  of  the  Dead.  To  the  west  of  Memphis  lay  its 
cemetery  or  Necropolis,  and  while  this  remained  the  capital  of 
Egypt,  the  pyramid-shaped  tomb  remained  in  favor.  Some- 
times the  pyramid  tombs  were  smaU  ;  sometimes  they  were 


THE  STORY  OF  EGYPT.  39 

large.  More  than  sixty  have  been  found,  and  large  numbers 
have  doubtless  disappeared  for  all  time.  Three,  however,  were 
made  so  prodigious  in  size  as  to  cast  into  obscurity  all  the  rest, 
and  these  have  come  to  be  called  the  "  three  Pyramids  of 
Gizeh,"  quite  as  though  they  were  sole  examples  of  their  kind. 
Kliufu  was  builder  of  the  largest  ;  this  is  generally  called  "  the 
Great  Pyramid."  His  son  Khafre  built  the  one  next  in  size, 
known  as  the  "Second  Pyramid,"  while  the  third,  much 
smaller  than  these,  was  built  by  Menkure.  Were  we  indif- 
ferent to  the  political  development  of  Egypt,  we  would  still 
wish  to  learn  about  these  mammoth  structures  which  are  scaled 
each  season  by  wondering  tourists,  and  have  excited  the  ad- 
miration and  awe  of  travelers  since  the  time  of  Herodotus. 

It  is  difficult  to  realize  the  vast  size  of  these  piles,  and  we 
can  do  so  only  by  comparing  them  to  things  with  which  we  are 
familiar.  The  base  of  the  largest  pyramid  covers  thirteen  acres 
of  ground,  solid  masonry  ;  it  was  originally  482  feet  high. 
Since  it  is  almost  one  solid  mass  of  stone,  it  is  not  difficult  to 
credit  the  statement  of  Herodotus  that  it  took  100,000  men 
twenty  years  to  build  it,  an  additional  ten  years  being  necessary 
to  quarry  the  stone  and  bring  it  to  the  chosen  site. 

"The  tradition  recorded  by  Herodotus  as  to  the  labor 
employed,  is  so  entirely  reasonable  for  the  execution  of  such 
work,  that  we  cannot  hesitate  to  accept  it.  It  is  said  that  a 
hundred  thousand  men  were  levied  for  three  months  at  a 
time  (i.  e.  during  the  three  months  of  the  inundation,  when 
ordinary  labor  is  at  a  standstill)  ;  and  on  this  scale  the  pyra- 
mid-building lasted  twenty  years." 

How  complete  must  have  been  the  organization  of  a  gov- 
ernment which  could  promote  such  an  extensive  project  as 
this  !  How  entirely  were  the  resources  of  the  empire  at  the 
disposal  of  the  king  when  free  citizens  could  be  impressed  to 
satisfy  the  vanity  of  the  proud  pharaoh  !  To  have  supported 
100,000  non-producing  men  must  of  itself  have  taxed  the 
treasury.  The  rulers  who  built  these  majestic  tombs  wished  to 
make  their  names  immortal,  as  well  as  to  preserve  their  bodies 
from  harm  and  decay.  This  first  they  certainly  accomplished, 
but  in  light  of  modern  investigation,  when  each  stone  lifted 
into  place  has  been  estimated  to  have  cost  at  least  one  human 
life,  these  proud  pharaoh s  elicit  less  admiration  and  commen- 
dation than  they  doubtless  thought  to  win. 


40  THE  world's  progress. 

Three  kinds  of  stone  were  used  in  the  construction  of  these 
pyramids.  The  inner  part,  or  core,  was  formed  of  materir.^ 
plentiful  near  the  building  site.  This  was  a  spongy  limestone 
that  was  not  durable  if  exposed  to  the  elements,  but  adequate 
when  covered  with  other  stone.  The  successive  layers,  put  on 
in  the  form  of  steps,  were  of  stone  brought  from  across  the 
river,  having  been  quarried  in  the  mountains  on  the  east.  It 
has  been  conjectured  that  a  causeway  was  laid  from  the  moun- 
tains to  the  side  of  the  pyramid,  and  that  blocks  of  stone  were 
dragged  by  men  this  distance.  Finally,  the  beautiful  granite 
used  for  outer  casing  was  found  near  the  southern  border  of 
Egpyt,  floated  down  the  stream  when  the  water  was  high,  and 
having  been  polished  like  a  mirror,  was  fitted  over  the  rougher 
stone.  2,300,000  blocks,  averaging  two  and  one-half  tons  each, 
were  used  for  the  construction  of  the  largest  pyramid. 

"  If  we  had  so  much  stone,  what  could  one  do  with  it  ?  " 
is  asked  in  The  Boy  Travelers  in  Egypt.  And  it  is  answered  : 
"  You  could  build  a  wall  four  feet  high  and  two  feet  thick — a 
good  wall  for  a  farm  or  a  garden — all  the  way  from  New  York 
to  Salt  Lake  City,  and  were  New  York  in  danger  of  an  attack 
and  desired  to  surround  the  whole  of  Manhattan  Island — 21 
miles — with  a  wall  forty  feet  high  and  twenty  feet  thick,  here 
would  be  material  to  do  it."  Rawlinson  tries  to  bring  its  size 
home  to  us  by  comparing  it  to  structures  with  which  we  are 
familiar.  He  says  :  "  In  height  it  exceeds  the  capitol  at  Wash- 
ington by  nearly  200  feet,  and  its  cubic  contents  would  pro- 
vide a  city  of  22,000  houses  solidly  built  of  stone  having  walls 
a  foot  thick,  twenty  feet  frontage  and  thirty  feet  deep,  thirty 
feet  high,  allowing  one-third  for  dividing  walls." 

For  several  hundred  years  the  Mohammedans  have  oc- 
cupied Egypt  and  they  have  taken  away  quantities  of  stone 
from  the  lesser  pyramids,  from  temples  and  other  ancient 
structures  of  IMemphis,  to  be  used  in  their  mosques  and  build- 
ings in  Cairo,  near-by.  The  outer  casing  of  the  Great  Pyramid, 
beautiful  granite  as  hard  as  iron,  was  removed  to  build  the 
large  mosque  of  this  comparatively  modem  city.  The  removal 
of  this  casing  has  left  the  under  layers  bare,  and  these,  step- 
like in  appearance,  are  annually  scaled  by  tourists.  With  the 
help  of  Arab  guides,  one  may  ascend  to  the  very  top  of  the 
huge  pile,  gaining  thence  a  splendid  view  of  the  surrounding 
country. 


THE   STORY   OF   EGYPT.  4I 

Even  the  pyramids  left  cased  in  granite  are  no  longer 
smooth.  The  weathering  of  ages  has  roughened  their  sides 
and  dulled  their  poHsh.  They  are  of  a  tawny  orange  color  and 
gleam  by  certain  lights  like  gigantic  piles  of  gold. 

Within  the  pyramids  were  chambers  for  the  remains  of 
kings  and  their  families  and  chambers  for  friends  to  gather  for 
worship — for  after  his  death,  an  Egyptian  king  was  wor- 
shipped as  a  god.  Even  a  spacious  gallery  was  provided  near 
the  top  of  the  Great  Pyramid,  in  order  that  air  might  circu- 
late freely  and  thus  keep  the  tomb  di*y. 

The  ambitious,  short-sighted  Fourth  dynasty  kings  ex- 
hausted the  resources  of  their  realm.  During  the  Fifth  and 
Sixth  dynasties  the  pyramids  became  smaller.  Even  the  long- 
suffering  land  of  the  Nile  could  no  longer  muster  vast  forces  to 
provide  huge  abiding  places  for  the  pharaohs.  Marvelous 
temples  would  still  be  erected,  and  wonderful  feats  of  archi- 
tecture accomplished,  but  the  passion  for  tremendous  tombs 
had  in  a  measure  spent  itself. 

"  The  essential  feeling  of  all  the  earliest  work  is  a  rivalry 
with  nature.  In  other  times  buildings  have  been  placed  either 
before  a  background  of  hills,  so  as  to  provide  a  natural  setting 
to  them,  or  crowning  some  natural  height.  But  the  Eg}^ptian 
consented  to  no  such  tame  co-operation  with  natural  features. 
He  selected  a  range  of  desert  hills  over  a  hundred  feet  high, 
and  then  subdued  it  entirely,  making  of  it  a  mere  pedestal  for 
pyramids,  which  were  more  than  thrice  as  high  as  the  native 
hill  on  which  they  stood.  There  was  no  shrinking  from  a 
comparison  with  the  work  of  nature  ;  but,  on  the  contrary, 
an  artificial  hill  was  formed  which  shrunk  its  natural  basis  by 
comparison,  until  it  seemed  a  mere  platform  for  the  work  of 
man. 

"  This  same  grandeur  of  idea  is  seen  in  the  vast  masses 
used  in  construction.  Man  did  not  then  regard  his  work  as  a 
piling  together  of  stones,  but  as  the  e;-ection  of  masses  that 
rivalled  those  of  nature.  If  a  cell  or  chamber  was  required, 
each  side  was  formed  of  one  single  stone.  .  .  .  If  a  build- 
ing was  set  up,  It  was  an  artificial  hill  in  which  chambers 
were  carved  out  after  it  was  piled  together.     .     .     . 

"  The  sculptor's  work,  and  the  painter's,  show  the  same 
sentiment.     They  did  not  make  a  work  of  art  to  please  the 


42  The  world's  progress. 

taste  as  such  ;  but  they  rivalled  nature  as  closely  as  possible. 
The  form,  the  expression,  the  colouring,  the  glittering  trans- 
parent eye,  the  grave  smile,  all  are  copied  as  if  to  make  an 
artificial  man.  The  painter  mixed  his  half-tints  and  his  deli- 
cate shades,  and  dappled  over  the  animals,  or  figured  the 
feathers  of  birds,  in  a  manner  never  attempted  in  the  later 
ages.  The  embalmer  built  up  the  semblance  of  the  man  in 
resins  and  cloth  over  his  shrunken  corpse,  to  make  him  as 
nearly  as  possible  what  he  was  when  alive. 

"  In  each  direction  man  then  set  himself  to  supplement,  to 
imitate,  to  rival  or  to  exceed,  the  works  of  nature.  Art,  as  the 
gratification  of  an  artificial  taste  and  standard,  was  scarcely  in 
existence  ;  but  the  simplicity,  the  vastness,  the  perfection,  arid 
the  beauty  of  the  earliest  works  place  them  on  a  different  level 
to  all  the  workers  of  art  and  man's  device  in  later  ages.  They  are 
unique  in  their  splendid  power,  which  no  self-conscious  civiliza- 
tion has  ever  rivalled,  nor  can  hope  to  rival  ;  and  in  their  en- 
during greatness  they  may  last  till  all  the  feebler  works  of 
man  have  perished."* 

»Tetrie;  History  of  Egypt,  Vol.  I,  p.  66. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
The;  Age  of  Darkness. 

With  the  close  of  the  Sixth  dynasty,  records  practically 
cease,  and  few  indeed  are  the  facts  established  regarding  those 
kings  whom  Manetho  included  in  his  Seventh  and  Eighth 
dynasties. 

From  earliest  times  each  nome  had  been  the  seat  of  some 
noble  family — ^the  descendants  of  chieftains,  possibly,  or  per- 
haps the  recipients  of  royal  land  grants.  Certain  it  is  that 
each  nome  had  its  noble  family  of  wide  estate,  from  whose 
number  the  governor  was  usually  chosen,  as  was  also  the  high 
priest  of  the  local  temple.  By  the  end  of  the  Sixth  dynasty, 
the  claimants  to  the  throne  were  not  strong  enough  to  hold 
together  the  land  they  aspired  to  rule;  they  maintained  their 
capital  at  Memphis,  but  neither  the  Delta  or  Upper  Egypt 
recognized  their  sway.  On  the  contrary,  each  prince  in  his 
own  nome  tried  to  increase  his  individual  strength  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  general  government.  Asiatic  invaders  seem  to 
have  strengthened  themselves  in  the  Delta,  while  to  the  south 
Theban  princes  came  into  prominence. 

During  the  period  which  Manetho  accorded  to  the  Ninth 
and  Tenth  dynasties,  a  prince  often  bought  the  favor  and  as- 
sistance of  as  many  nobles  as  he  -was  able,  and  with  his  united 
forces  established  himself  in  his  own  vicinity. 

The  vast  resources  which  had  been  so  completely  at  the 
command  of  the  Fourth  dynasty  kings  were  now  divided 
among  many  petty  nobles,  each  seeking  to  aggrandize  him- 
self. Naturally,  no  costly  tombs  could  be  constructed  to  per- 
petuate the  memories  of  these  who  now  aspired  to  Egypt's 
throne  ;  the  tombs  which  had  to  satisfy  were  less  enduring,  and 
this  no  doubt  explains  why  so  few  remains  of  the  period  have 
come  to  light  in  recent  years.  The  thread  of  history  is  almost 
lost  during  the  age  of  darkness  which  included  the  Seventh, 
Eighth,  Ninth  and  Tenth  dynasties.     Shut  off  from  the  dis- 


44  The  world's  progress. 

closures  of  tombs,  Egyptologists  have  turned  to  the  mines  and 
quarries.  All  kings  of  importance  have  there  left  traces  of 
their  operations,  but  the  mines  contain  no  tablets,  no  decrees, 
no  records  of  quarrying  undertaken  in  these  years,  save  here 
and  there  an  inscription  indicating  that  some  noble  carried  on 
work  within  them  on  his  own  behalf. 

It  is  probable  that  the  land  passed  through  a  most  trying 
experience  in  the  time  intervening  between  the  Old  and  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Middle  Empire,  when  neither  property,  pos- 
sessions, nor  life  itself  were  safe  throughout  the  land,  but 
anarchy,  strife  and  turmoil  were  everywhere  rife.  The  kings 
maintained  their  capital  at  Heracleopolis,  but  they  were  in 
continual  struggle  with  the  princes  of  Thebes.  How  great  had 
been  the  confusion  we  may  judge  when  one  of  the  Tenth  dy- 
nasty rulers  takes  pride  in  recording  the  fact  that  order  had 
characterized  his  reign.  "  Every  official  was  at  his  post,  there 
was  no  fighting,  nor  any  shooting  an  arrow.  The  child  was 
not  smitten  beside  his  mother,  nor  the  citizen  beside  his  wife. 
There  was  no  evil-doer  nor  any  one  doing  violence  against  his 
house.  When  night  came,  he  who  slept  on  the  road  gave  me 
praise,  for  he  was  like  a  man  in  his  house  ;  the  fear  of  my 
soldiers  was  his  protection. "i 

The  M1DD1.E  Empire.* 

Order  and  prosperity  returned  to  Egypt  after  years  of  dark- 
ness and  confusion.  Thebes  superseded  Memphis  as  the  center 
of  political  life.  Great  material  development  characterized  the 
beginning  of  what  Manetho  designated  as  the  Middle  Empire. 
Before  taking  up  the  work  of  the  early  Theban  kings,  let  us 
learn  something  of  the  locality  wherein  they  dwelt. 

Memphis,  as  has  been  shown,  was  located  conveniently  to 
both  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt,  while  the  Nile  protected  the  city 
from  sudden  Asiatic  attacks.  What  then  were  the  points  of  ad- 
vantage for  Thebes,  lying  400  miles  farther  south  ? 

"  Here  the  usually  narrow  valley  of  the  Nile  opens  into  a 
sort  of  plain  or  basin. 

"  The  mountains  on  either  side  of  the  river  recede,  as  though 
by  common  consent,  and  leave  between  themselves  and  the 

*  Trans,  by  Breasted,  Hist.  Egypt,  149.  The  approximate  dates  of 
this  period  are :  Dynasties  VII.  and  VIIJ.  Ca.  2475-2445  b.  c.  ;  Dynasties 
XI.  and  X.  Ca.  2475-2160  b.  c. 

'Dynasties  XI.  and  XII.-  2160-178ft  b.  c 


THE  STORY  OF   EGYPT.  45 

river's  bank  a  broad  amphitheater,  which  in  each  case  is  a  rich 
green  plain — a  soil  of  the  most  productive  character — dotted 
with  doom  and  date  palms,  sometimes  growing  single,  some- 
times collected  into  clumps  or  groves.  On  the  western  side  the 
Libyan  range  gathers  itself  up  into  a  single  considerable  peak, 
which  has  an  elevation  of  1,200  feet.  On  the  east  the  desert- 
wall  maintains  its  usual  level  character,  but  is  pierced  by  val- 
leys conducting  to  the  coast  of  the  Red  Sea.  The  situation 
was  one  favorable  for  commerce.  On  the  one  side  was  the 
nearest  route  through  the  sandy  desert  to  the  Lesser  Oasis, 
which  commanded  the  trade  of  the  African  interior  ;  on  the 
other  the  way  led  through  the  valley  of  Hammamat,  rich  with 
.  .  .  valuable  and  rare  stones,  to  a  district  abounding  in 
mines  of  gold,  silver  and  lead,  and  thence  to  the  Red  Sea 
coast,  from  which,  even  in  very  early  times,  there  was  com- 
munication with  the  opposite  coast  of  Arabia,  the  region  of 
gums  and  spices."* 

Such  being  the  location  of  Thebes,  we  shall  see  that  it  grew 
until  in  time  it  became  the  mightiest  city  of  the  ancient  world. 

With  the  establishment  of  the  Eleventh  dynasty  (Ca.  2160- 
2000  B.C.),  the  work  of  reuniting  and  re-establishing  a  cen- 
tralized government  began.  The  Delta  had  to  be  reclaimed 
from  invaders  who  had  gained  the  upper  hand  while  the  land 
was  divided  against  itself.  Unity  being  at  last  secured,  rulers 
were  free  to  launch  out  upon  other  enterprises.  One  of  the  later 
kings  had  a  deep  well  provided  for  those  who  served  in  the 
quarries ;  another  sent  an  expedition  of  3,000  men  to  bring  back 
stone  for  his  tomb.  These  men  were  also  instructed  to  go 
beyond  the  quarries — to  Punt,  which  must  have  lain  on  the 
Somali  coast  of  East  Africa,  and  bring  back  products  of  that 
region.  The  expedition  set  out  under  the  leadership  of  a 
nobleman  whose  report  has  fortunately  come  down  to  us.  It 
states  that  his  men  built  stations  and  made  wells  along  their 
route,  to  the  lasting  benefit  of  those  who  might  journey  thence. 
Part  of  the  detachment  was  left  to  quarry  stone,  while  the  rest 
proceeded  to  Punt  and  procured  spices,  gums,  precious  woods, 
and  rare  animals.  After  noting  their  safe  return,  the  prince 
adds:  "Never  was  brought  down  the  like  thereof  for  the 
king's  court;  never  was  done  the  like  of  this  by  any  king's 

*Rawlinson,  Ancient  Egypt,  95. 
1—6 


46  The  world's  progress. 

confidant  sent  out  since  the  time  of  the  god.  I  did  this  for 
the  majesty  of  my  lord  because  he  so  much  loved  me."^ 

The  Twelfth  dynasty  (2000-1788  b.c.)  brought  forth  some 
of  Egypt's  ablest  kings.  Their  creative  ability  was  perhaps  not 
excelled  by  subsequent  pharaohs.  Amenemhet  I.  (2000-1970 
B.C.)  proved  himself  strong  enough  to  curb  the  power  of  the 
feudal  princes.  These  hereditary  nobles  had  probably  received 
gifts  of  land  from  earlier  kings  in  recognition  of  loyal  service.; 
The  estates  passed  from  father  to  son,  and  while  the  central 
government  had  been  weak,  the  princes  became  more  and  more 
aggressive.  They  fortified  themselves,  each  in  his  nome,  re- 
tained large  retinues  of  officials,  servants,  militia  and  realized 
vast  incomes  from  extensive  tracts  of  arable  land.  It  was 
neither  possible  nor  prudent  to  remodel  the  entire  system,  but 
Amenemhet  I  undertook  to  modify  it.  Whenever  one  of  these 
landed  princes  died,  the  king  himself  chose  from  the  heirs  the 
one  who  should  succeed  him.  Naturally,  he  selected 
one  whose  loyalty  to  himself  and  to  the  government  was  un- 
questioned. Again,  the  boundaries  of  the  nomes  had  never  been 
officially  determined,  and  during  the  years  of  confusion,  strong 
nobles  had  infringed  upon  the  possessions  of  weaker  ones.  The 
king  made  a  tour  through  the  country,  heard  all  complaints  of 
such  encroachments,  and  decided  the  limits  of  all  disputed 
boundaries.  This  did  much  to  restrict  the  strength  of  ambitious 
princes. 

His  son,  coming  to  the  throne,  subdued  the  Nubians  on 
the  south  and  extended  the  empire  to  the  second  cataract ;  but 
it  was  left  for  Sesostris  III.  to  make  this  conquest  sure,  and 
then  to  post  his  decree  along  the  river. 

"This  is  the  southern  frontier;  fixed  in  the  eighth  year  of 
the  reign  of  his  majesty.  Usurtasen  [Sesostris],  ever  living. 
Let  it  not  be  permitted  to  any  negro  to  pass  this  boundary 
northward,  either  on  foot  or  by  boat ;  nor  any  sort  of  cattle,  oxen, 
goats,  or  sheep  belonging  to  the  negroes.  Except  when  any 
negro  comes  to  trade  in  the  land  of  Aken,  or  on  any  business,  let 
him  be  well  treated.  But  without  allowing  boats  of  the  negToe.« 
to  pass  Heh  northward  forever."* 

*  Trans,  by  Breasted,  Ancient  Records,  I,  §433. 

*  Petrie,  Hist,  of  Egypt,  Vol.  I,  181. 


TH^  STORY  OF  EGYPT.  47 

In  gratitude  to  the  king  for  thus  securing  to  them  safety  by 
repulsing  the  negroes,  the  Egyptians  sang  extravagant  hymns 
to  Sostostris.  Some  of  these  have  been  rendered  into  EngUsh, 
and  are  regarded  as  excellent  specimens  of  Egyptian  poetry. 
The  following  is  one  of  these  songs : 

**  Twice  joyful  are  the  gods, 

Thou  hast  established  their  offerings. 
Twice  joyful  are  thy  princes. 

Thou  hast  formed  their  boundaries. 
Twice  joyful  are  thy  ancestors  before  thee. 

Thou  hast  increased  their  portions. 
Twice  joyful  is  Egypt  at  thy  strong  arm. 

Thou  hast  guarded  the  ancient  order. 
Twice  joyful  are  the  aged  with  thy  administration. 

Thou  hast  widened  their  possessions. 
Twice  joyful  are  the  two  regions  with  thy  valor. 

Thou  hast  caused  them  to  flourish. 
Twice  joyful  are  thy  young  men  of  support. 

Thou  hast  caused  them  to  flourish. 
Twice  joyful  are  thy  veterans, 

Thou  hast  caused  them  to  be  vigorous. 
Twice  joyful  are  the  two  lands  in  thy  might, 

Thou  hast  guarded  their  walls. 
Twice  joyful  be  thou,  O  Horus !  widening  thy  boundary, 

Mayest  thou  renew  an  eternity  of  life.'" 

AmENEmhET  III. 

The  greatest  name  of  the  Twelfth  dynasty  is  that  of  Amen- 
emhet  III.  (1849-1801  b.c).  He  directed  his  attention  to  inter- 
nal improvements.  Realizing  the  dire  effects  upon  Egypt  when 
the  Nile  failed  to  supply  sufficient  water  or  when  too  much  water 
was  forthcoming,  he  studied  various  ways  of  controlling  the 
river.  Once  or  twice  in  a  century  the  rainfall,  always  heavy 
in  the  Abyssinian  highlands,  is  yet  greater  ;  the  river  rises 
rapidly  to  unexpected  heights  and  works  general  havoc.  Or 
sometimes  the  supply  may  be  less  than  usual.  Having  watched 
the  stream  with  anxious  eyes  for  many  a  week,  the  people 

•Petrie,  Hist-  of  Egypt,  Vol.  I,  182. 


48  THE  world's  progress. 

behold  it  recede,  although  only  the  adjacent  plains  have  been 
refreshed  and  upper  portions  of  the  valley  lie  parched  and 
lifeless,  while  famine  stares  Egypt  in  the  face. 

Amenemhet  III.  beheved  that  a  vast  reservoir  might  regu- 
late the  supply,  receiving  the  water  when  it  was  at  high  flood 
and  giving  it  out  once  more  when  the  stream  was  low.  He 
looked  about  for  a  natural  depression  and  found  it  to  the  west 
of  Memphis,  beyond  a  narrow  range  of  hills.  Canals  were 
made  leading  into  this  basin  and  Lake  Moeris  was  the  result. 
Some  hundreds  of  square  miles  were  gained  by  this  new  means 
of  irrigation  and  the  tract  thus  made  arable,  became  royal 
domain.  The  district  is  known  as  the  Fayoum.  Near  its 
entrance  Amenemhet  III.  built  his  pyramid.  It  differed  from 
earlier  tombs  in  that  the  chamber  destined  to  receive  his  mum- 
my was  reached  by  passages  even  more  secret  and  winding 
than  ordinary.  False  doors  were  placed  here  and  there  to  mis- 
lead any  who  might  attempt  to  molest  the  body. 

Under  his  direction,  a  wonderful  building  was  constructed. 
It  was  called  the  Labyrinth.  Being  about  800  feet  wide  and 
1,000  feet  long,  it  contained  1,500  rooms  above  the  ground 
and  as  many  more  below  it.  There  were  many  courts  with 
numerous  doors  leading  from  them  and  Strabo,  a  Greek  geog- 
rapher, who  saw  it  long  after  Amenemhet  had  taken  his  jour- 
ney to  the  realm  of  Osiris,  said  that  the  ceilings  and  sides  of 
the  rooms  were  made  from  single  stones  !  It  is  believed  that 
the  king  planned  this  structure  to  serve  as  a  great  capitol  for 
his  kingdom,  and  that  there  were  suites  of  halls  for  every  nome, 
with  chapels  for  their  gods.  A  vast  number  of  chambers 
would  naturally  be  required  for  this,  and  probably  there  was 
no  thought  of  making  the  building  baffling  or  bewildering,  as 
the  name  labyrinth  now  signifies.  This  was  counted  among  the 
wonders  of  the  ancient  world,  but,  like  the  city  built  around  it, 
disappeared  ages  ago.  Herodotus  has  left  us  a  description  of 
the  huge  building,  written  to  inform  his  countrymen  of  a  struc- 
ture more  remarkable  than  anything  they  could  boast.  When  he 
saw  it,  almost  five  hundred  years  before  the  time  of  Christ,  it 
was  still  in  perfect  condition. 

"  I  visited  the  place,"  he  says,  "  and  found  it  to  surpass  de- 
scription ;  for  if  all  the  walls  and  other  great  works  of  the 
Greeks  could  be  put  together  into  one,  they  would  not  equal 


THE    STORY    OF    EGYPT.  49 

this  Labyrinth.  The  pyramids  likewise  surpass  description, 
and  are  severally  equal  to  a  number  of  the  greatest  works  of 
the  Greeks  ;  but  the  Labyrinth  surpasses  the  pyramids.  It  has 
twelve  courts,  all  of  them  roofed,  with  gates  exactly  opposite 
one  another,  six  looking  to  the  north,  and  six  to  the  south.  A 
single  wall  surrounds  the  whole  building.  It  contains  two  dif- 
ferent sorts  of  chambers,  half  of  them  under  ground,  and  half 
above  ground,  the  latter  built  upon  the  former  ;  the  whole 
number  is  three  thousand,  of  each  kind  fifteen  hundred.  The 
upper  chambers  I  myself  passed  through  and  saw,  and  what 
I  say  of  them  is  from  my  own  observation  ;  of  the  underground 
chambers  I  can  only  speak  from  report,  for  the  keepers  of  the 
building  could  not  be  induced  to  show  them  ;  since  they  con- 
tain, they  said,  the  sepulchres  of  the  kings  who  built  the  laby- 
rinth, and  also  those  of  the  sacred  crocodiles.  Thus  it  is  from 
hearsay  only  that  I  can  speak  of  them  ;  but  the  upper  chambers 
I  saw  with  my  own  eyes,  and  found  them  to  excel  all  other 
human  productions  ;  for  the  passages  through  the  houses  and 
the  varied  windings  of  the  paths  across  the  courts,  excited  in 
me  infinite  admiration,  as  I  passed  from  these  colonnades  into 
fresh  houses,  and  again  from  these  into  courts  unseen  before. 
The  roof  was,  throughout,  of  stone,  like  the  walls  ;  and  the 
walls  were  carved  all  over  with  figures  ;  every  court  was  sur- 
rounded with  a  colonnade,  which  was  built  of  white  stone,  ex- 
quisitely fitted  together.  At  the  corner  of  the  Labyrinth  stands 
a  pyramid,  forty  fathoms  high,  with  large  figures  engraved 
upon  it,  which  is  entered  by  a  subterranean  passage." 

In  comparison  with  the  Old  Empire  kings,  those  of  the  Mid- 
dle Empire  seem  to  us  much  more  modern  in  spirit.  Instead 
of  merging  the  whole  population  into  instruments  to  work  out 
the  pharaoh's  fancy,  instead  of  squandering  the  riches  of  the 
land  and  the  lives  of  subjects  to  provide  mammoth  tombs 
which  should  eternalize  the  ruler's  memory  and  flame  forth 
his  power  and  greatness  unto  succeeding  generations,  the  far- 
sighted  Twelfth  dynasty  kings  devoted  their  time  and  resources 
to  the  improvement  of  their  kingdom.  Wells  were  dug  ;  roads 
constructed  ;  public  buildings  erected  ;  fortifications  strength- 
ened ;  frontiers  extended.  The  attention  of  the  monarch  was 
directed  to  the  commercial  prosperity  of  the  realm,  to  the  ag- 
ricultural  conditions   and   their   improvement — vn   short,    the 


50  THE  world's  progress. 

best  years  of  the  Middle  Empire  were  years  of  material  gain 
for  the  Nile  dwellers,  wherein  men  developed  the  arts  of  peace, 
and  the  valley  testified  to  wise  administration.  Through  a 
second  period  of  depression  a  nation  was  to  look  back  upon  the 
age  of  its  material  progress  with  longing  eyes,  and  still  better, 
to  retain  even  under  adverse  conditions  standards  of  govern- 
ment and  life  which  would  later  be  recovered.  After  the 
death  of  the  great  king,  called  Amenemhet  the  Good  by  his 
grateful  subjects,  none  appeared  able  to  adequately  fill  his 
place,  and  his  glorious  reig^  was  overshadowed  by  a  second 
period  of  darkness. 


CHAPTER  V. 
The  Shepherd  Kings.* 

The  Thirteenth  dynasty  kings  were  not  sufficiently  strong 
to  hold  intact  the  kingdom  which  passed  into  their  hands.  Soon 
again  the  feudal  princes  of  nome  and  city  were  contending  with 
one  another  for  additional  power.  The  Fourteenth  dynasty 
rulers  had  their  capital  in  Xois,  a  Delta  city.  Both  dynasties 
lasted  but  a  brief  time,  filled  with  unrest  and  contention.  We 
can  imagine  into  what  state  Egypt  fell  when  a  negro  of  Nubia, 
of  a  race  despised  by  the  Egyptians,  set  himself  up  as  their 
king.  Several  princes  ruled  at  the  same  time  in  various  portions 
of  the  realm.  Sources  of  information  for  these  chaotic  years  are 
scanty;  no  monuments  have  come  down  to  us,  the  inference 
being  that  the  resources  and  energies  of  the  land  were  required 
for  more  immediate  needs  than  the  erection  of  costly  tombs  for 
rulers  of  disputed  right. 

The  whole  country  must  have  suffered  greatly.  The  system 
of  irrigation  set  in  order  by  Amenemhet  III.  required  both 
national  supervision  and  national  funds  for  its  maintenance.  As 
neither  could  have  been  forthcoming,  the  food  production  must 
have  been  materially  diminished.  Engaged  in  civil  war,  Egypt 
soon  fell  a  prey  to  foreign  invaders. 

For  hundreds  of  years  it  had  been  not  unusual  for  Syrian 
bands  to  ask  permission  to  settle  within  Egyptian  borders.  In 
the  tomb  of  a  provincial  governor  of  Upper  Egypt  has  been 
found  a  painting  which  portrays  a  company  of  seventeen  Be- 
douins bringing  presents  to  the  nobleman  and  asking  that  they 
be  allowed  to  locate  in  his  dominion.  In  Genesis  we  read  con- 
cerning Abram  :  "  And  Abram  journeyed,  going  still  toward 
the  south.  And  there  was  a  famine  in  the  land  of  Canaan  ; 
and  Abram  went  down  into  Egypt  to  sojourn  there  ;  for  the 
famine  was  grievous  in  the  land."  Since  Abram  was  rich  in 
cattle  and  in  gold,  he  undoubtedly  brought  many  of  his  family 
and  followers  to  dwell  with  him  in  the  land  of  plenty.  Similar 
incidents  were  common.  If  the  rainfall  was  short  in  Canaan, 
in  the  territory  of  the  Hittites  or  even  in  Arabia,  Egypt  was 

'  Dynasties  XIII  to  XVIII,  including  the  Hyksos,  1788-1580  b.  c 

SI 


52  thb  world's  progress. 

ever  regarded  as  a  last  resort.  The  Nile  never  failed  to  supply 
water  for  the  flocks;  here,  too,  it  was  customary  to  store 
grain  in  royal  store-cities,  in  order  that  in  time  of  need  Egypt 
could  sell  advantageously  to  her  neighbors.  In  a  pastoral  age, 
such  favorable  conditions  as  these  were  highly  prized. 

The  Pharaohs  diligently  fortified  their  frontiers,  and  it  must 
not  be  supposed  that  in  times  of  peace  foreigners  were  allowed 
to  come  at  will  into  the  land.  There  were,  on  the  contrary, 
officers  stationed  along  the  boundaries  to  apprehend  any  who 
wished  to  enter,  to  receive  their  requests  and  forward  them  to 
the  governor  of  the  nome.  Until  he  was  heard  from,  strangers 
were  detained  on  the  border.  It  seems  to  have  been  usual,  how- 
ever, to  admit  such  petitioners  unless  it  was  thought  that  they 
might  become  a  menace  to  the  state.  It  naturally  came  about, 
therefore,  that  the  tribes  on  the  east  looked  with  envious  eyes 
upon  the  rich  valley  of  the  Nile,  and  when  Egypt  was  disrupted, 
her  resources  and  soldiers  no  longer  at  the  command  of  one 
ruler  but  divided  among  several  contending  nobles — each  of 
whom  valued  his  personal  interests  above  those  of  his  country — 
while  anarchy  and  disorder  infested  the  coveted  land,  an  over- 
whelming host  of  Semitic  hordes  poured  into  the  Delta,  spread- 
ing thence  into  the  valley.    Before  them  Egypt  was  helpless. 

Asia  and  Egypt  as  well  were  inhabited  in  early  times  by 
many  wandering  or  nomadic  tribes.  A  tribe  dwelt  in  one  local- 
ity while  pasturage  was  good,  and  when  it  was  exhausted, 
would  move  on  to  new  fields.  Sometimes  the  tribe  in  possession 
of  one  district  would  learn  that  other  tribes  were  drawing  near, 
and  in  an  age  when  strangers  were  considered  enemies,  this 
would  furnish  sufficient  pretext  for  starting  out  on  the  march 
again.  Periods  of  unrest  sometimes  swept  over  vast  areas; 
in  such  a  time  as  this,  perhaps,  Asiatic  tribes  poured  into  Egypt. 
In  her  pitiable  plight,  the  country  lay  an  easy  prey  to  such  in- 
vaders, who  Manetho  tells  us  numbered  a  quarter  of  a  million. 
It  is  said  that  they  took  possession  without  a  battle.  Just  who 
they  were  or  where  they  came  from  is  not  known.  We  now 
know  that  the  Hittites  invaded  Babylonia  during  the  reign  ol 
Samsu-ditana,  the  last  king  of  the  First  Dynasty  of  Babylon, 
and  that  this  was  the  indirect  cause  of  the  fall  of  this  dynasty 
(about  1750  b.c).  Scholars  are  beginning  to  suspect  that  the 
invasion  of  Egypt  at  this  time  was  either  led  by  the  Hittites  or 


ThK  story  of  EGYPT.  53 

due  to  Hittite  pressure  back  of  the  tribes  in  Syria-Palestine. 
Their  kings  were  called  Hyksos,  and  from  a  doubtful  etymology 
of  this  name  they  are  still  styled  the  "Shepherd  kings." 

The  invading  conquerors  put  many  of  the  Egy^ptians  to 
death,  taking  their  wives  and  children  into  slavery.  Worship- 
ping gods  of  their  own,  they  hated  the  gods  of  the  Egyptians 
and  destroyed  many  temples  and  monuments.  Generally  speak- 
ing, they  remained  in  the  Delta  and  the  Fayoum,  the  Theban 
princes  ruling  in  the  south  as  their  vassals. 

Gradually  these  fierce  Asiatics  took  on  the  civilization  of 
the  land  they  had  invaded.  They  doimed  Egyptian  dress,  spoke 
and  wrote  as  the  Egyptians,  and  built  temples  much  like  theirs. 
The  country  rallied  from  its  recent  disaster  and  life  became  not 
unlike  that  of  earlier  times. 

In  time  the  Theban  nobles  increased  in  power  ;  the  Hyksos 
— or  thefr  descendants  in  the  Delta — grew  alarmed  lest  the 
native  princes  might  become  powerful  enough  to  force  them 
from  the  throne  they  had  usurped.  Determined  to  check  any 
threatening  strength  on  the  part  of  the  Egyptains,  the  foreign- 
ers tried  to  bring  about  open  conflict,  sure  themselves  of  vic- 
tory. At  first  the  Theban  princes  sought  to  avert  war,  but 
the  demands  of  the  Hyksos  grew  heavier.  There  was  a  folk- 
story  to  the  effect  that  the  usurping  king  in  the  Delta  sent  word 
to  the  Theban  prince  that  the  noise  of  the  sacred  hippopotami 
in  the  pools  and  canals  allowed  him  rest  neither  by  night  or  day, 
and  must  be  disposed  of.  However  simple  this  appears,  it  may 
easily  signify  that  the  final  break  came  because  of  religious 
difficulties. 

Roused  at  last,  the  Egyptians  determined  to  drive  the  in- 
vaders from  their  land.  This  occurred  during  the  Seventeenth 
dynasty — for  Manetho  continues  his  list  of  Egyptian  kings 
throughoui  the  period  of  foreign  rule.  The  Asiatics  were 
driven  north,  and  the  first  pharaoh  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty, 
King  Ahmose  (1580-1350  B.C.),  gathered  a  vast  army  and 
forced  them  beyond  his  borders.  Five  years  were  consumed 
in  accomplishing  this,  and  in  the  end  many  of  the  foreigners 
were  reduced  to  slavery. 

Summing  up  the  results  of  the  invasion  of  the  Hyksos,  we 
may  note  that  Egypt  learned  much  during  her  period  of  oppres- 
sion. Before  the  invasion,  her  fighting  had  been  confined  to  the 
defense  of  her  frontiers.    Asiatic  and  African,  and  the  tribes 


54  The  world  s  progress. 

with  which  she  had  waged  war  had  been  her  inferiors.  In  th« 
Asiatic  tribes  she  had  at  last  met  a  people  more  skillful  in 
military  affairs  than  she.  They  used  horses  and  chariots,  and 
their  mode  of  warfare  was  superior  to  the  clumsy,  undisciplined 
efforts  of  the  Nile-dwellers.  It  was  by  adopting  their  methods 
that  Egypt  finally  succeeded  in  expelling  them  from  the  land. 
Hereafter  we  find  the  horse  and  chariot  used  extensively  in 
Egyptian  wars. 

Another  important  result  was  the  elimination  of  the  feudal 
lords.  They  had  opposed  both  the  Hyksos  and  the  successful 
king  Ahmose,  and  fighting  for  personal  interests  alone,  had  most 
of  them  perished  in  the  conflict.  The  vast  areas  which  had  been 
their  portion  reverted  to  the  crown  and  became  royal  domain. 

It  has  been  thought  that  Joseph  served  under  one  of  the 
foreign  kings,  and  that  the  conditions  spoken  of  at  the  close  of 
his  career — when  all  Egypt  was  subdued  and  at  the  command 
of  the  Pharaoah — coincide  with  the  situation  shortly  after  the 
feudal  lords  had  disappeared  as  a  political  factor.  All  this  is, 
however,  doubtful. 

In  marked  contrast  with  the  gloom  of  long  years  under 
foreign  oppression  shines  the  splendor  of  the  New  Empire. 

The  Beginning  oe  the  New  Empire.^ 

The  wide  differences  which  we  have  noted  concerning  dates 
accepted  by  various  Egyptologists  disappear  as  we  approach  the 
Christian  era,  and  there  is  general  agreement  that  the  sixteenth 
century  before  Christ  saw  the  dawn  of  the  New  Empire  which 
had  its  beginning  when  the  independence  of  Egypt  was  estab- 
lished and  Hyksos  rule  thrown  off.  Petrie  calls  this  the  most 
glorious  page  in  Egyptian  history. 

Ahmose  had  much  to  do  before  the  safety  of  the  govern- 
ment was  assured.  While  he  pursued  the  Hyksos  into  Asia, 
crippling  their  allies,  the  Ethiopians  infringed  upon  his  southern 
border.  Three  different  expeditions  had  to  be  sent  against  them 
before  they  were  reduced  to  submission.  Then  only  did  the 
king  find  opportunity  to  direct  his  attention  to  the  domestic 
concerns  of  the  kingdom.  Thebes,  the  capital,  was  given  first 
consideration  in  the  matter  of  building  and  adornment.  The 
foundations  for  the  famous  temple  of  Karnak,  of  which  we 
shall  hear  more  at  length,  were  begun. 

*  Dynasties  XVIII  to  XX,  1580-1090  b.  c. 


THE    STORY    OF    EGYPT,  55 

Ahmose's  son  succeeded  him,  but  aside  from  putting-  down 
an  uprising  of  the  troublesome  Ethiopians,  Httle  of  importance 
attached  to  his  administration. 

It  was  left  for  Ahmose's  grandson,  Thutmose^  L,  to  give 
Egv'pt  the  position  she  was  to  occupy  among  the  nations  for 
many  years.  Thutmose  I,  was  instinctively  a  soldier.  Coming 
to  the  throne  when  a  mere  boy,  the  Ethiopians  made  war  directly, 
thinking  they  could  easily  overcome  so  inexperienced  a  king. 
Thutmose  at  once  gave  indication  of  his  capacity  by  marching 
immediately  into  their  territory  and  defeating  them  with  tre- 
mendous slaughter.  To  prevent  further  annoyance, from  these 
people  the  king  divided  their  country  into  districts  and  over 
each  he  placed  an  Egyptian  official.  Thus  the  land  of  Kush  be- 
came an  Egyptian  province. 

Having  now  a  well  organized  army,  Thutmose  pressed  into 
Asia — for  the  experience  of  Ahmose  had  shown  that  rich 
plunder  there  awaited  the  victor.  Some  tribes  yielded  volun- 
tarily to  Eg>-pt ;  others  were  forced  to  yield. 

Although  the  king  penetrated  some  distance  east  of  the 
Euphrates,  these  districts  were  not  permanently  won  for  Egypt. 
On  the  contrary,  we  shall  find  that  subsequent  pharaohs  did 
over  and  over  again  what  this  king  attempted,  and  for  this 
reason :  each  time  a  nation  was  conquered,  Thutmose  withdrew 
his  soldiers  from  it,  imposing  tribute  and  asking  hostages.  So 
long  as  the  tribute  was  forthcoming,  the  tribe  was  left  undis- 
turbed. This  gave  wide  opportunity  for  the  conquered  peoples 
to  unite  among  themselves  and  make  attempts  to  shake  off 
control  whenever  a  new  ruler  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Egypt 
This  proved  eventually  a  most  extravagant  policy  for  Thutmose 
to  have  followed. 

Henceforth  Eg^'pt  had  to  take  her  place  as  a  military  power, 
and  with  her  every  new  aspiring  nation  had  to  reckon.  When 
we  recall  the  peaceful  Egyptians  of  early  times,  secluded  in  their 
quiet  valley,  disliking  foreigners  and  having  as  little  intercourse 
with  them  as  possible,  we  realize  what  a  change  had  been 
wrought  in  them  by  their  contact  with  the  Hyksos  during  the 
years  of  their  oppression. 

Egypt's  future  was  largely  marked  out  by  Thutmose  I.,  as 

later  reigns  demonstrated.    Perhaps  his  greatness  has  not  been 

wholly   appreciated.     "The   greatness   of   Thutmose^    I.    has 

*  Usually  written  Thothmes.    The  form  Thutmose  is,  however,  nearar 
the  origina*. 


56  THE  world's  progress. 

scarcely  been  sufficiently  recognized  by  historians.  It  may  be 
true  that  he  did  not  effect  much  ;  but  he  broke  ground  in  a 
new  direction  ;  he  set  an  example  which  led  on  to  grand  results. 
To  him  it  was  due  that  Egypt  ceased  to  be  the  isolated,  unag- 
gressive power  that  she  had  remained  for  perhaps  ten  centuries, 
that  she  came  boldly  to  the  front  and  aspired  to  bring  Asia  into 
subjection.  Henceforth  she  exercised  a  potent  influence  beyond 
her  borders — an  influence  which  affected,  more  or  less,  all  the 
"western  Asiatic  powers.  She  had  forced  her  way  into  the 
comity  of  the  great  nations.  Henceforth  whether  it  was  for 
good  or  for  evil,  she  had  to  take  her  place  among  them,  to 
reckon  with  them,  as  they  reckoned  with  her,  to  be  a  factor  in 
the  problem  which  the  ages  had  to  work  out — ^what  should  be 
the  general  march  of  events,  and  what  states  anr  nations  should 
most  affect  the  dectiny  of  the  world."* 

'  Rawlinson,  Ancient  Egypt,  168. 


THE  STORY   OP   EGYPT.  5;^ 


CHAPTER  VI. 
The  Earliest  Queen  in  History. 

We  now  come  upon  a  story  in  Egyptian  history.  It  might 
easily  begin  with  "  Once  upon  a  time,"  and  better  still,  it  is 
true.  Of  course  we  all  know  that  when  people  live  hundreds 
and  thousands  of  years  in  a  country  and  reach  a  high  degree 
of  civilization,  when  they  build  noble  structures,  become  pro- 
ficient in  art,  write  books,  and  have  developed  a  high  degree  of 
culture,  their  lives  have  been  full  of  absorbing  experiences, 
just  as  ours  are  today,  and  we  may  be  sure  that  these  Egyp- 
tians, who  sometimes  seem  a  bit  monotonous  in  the  light  of 
recorded  history,  would  be  interesting  enough  did  we  know 
more  about  their  daily  lives. 

In  many  families  it  has  been  customary  to  keep  a  family 
record — in  the  Bible  often,  sometimes  in  special  record  books. 
The  habit  is  less  prevalent  than  it  once  was,  but  we  have  doubt- 
less all  seen  such  records  and  recall  that  they  generally  include 
births,  marriages  and  deaths  occurring  in  the  family.  From 
them,  however,  one  could  get  no  idea  in  years  to  come  of  the 
happy  holiday  gatherings,  social  pleasures,  and  family  cele- 
brations frequently  enjoyed. 

It  is  somewhat  the  same  with  nations.  They  leave  moment- 
ous events  in  their  history  carved  in  marble,  painted  on  can- 
vas or  written  in  whatever  fashion  they  have  known  ;  but  it 
is  left  largely  to  us  to  weave  in  the  rest  of  the  story  as  best 
we  may — and  too  often  this  part  is  neglected.  People  long 
since  vanished  seem  too  often  like  unreal  creatures,  who  fought 
in  wars,  established  dynasties,  enjoyed  periods  of  peace  and 
suffered  in  times  of  tumult,  and  these  events  appear  to  be  fitted 
together  like  the  pieces  of  a  puzzle.  Had  historians  keener 
imaginations  they  might  bring  these  ancient  people  before  us  as 
distinctly  human,  so  that,  like  the  characters  of  Dickens  and 
Scott,  they  would  abide  in  our  memories.  But  then  you  see, 
someone  would  suggest  that  this  was  no  longer  history. 

However,  the  world  has  seen  a  few  queens  who  have 
apparently  determined  to  relegate  dullness  and  monotony  to 


jg  THE  WORIJ>'S   PROGRESS. 

kings— as  for  themselves  they  would  have  none  of  it.  Such 
was  Good  Queen  Bess  of  England,  and  such  also  was  Queen 
Hatshepsut  of  long-forgotten  Egypt.  ,     ,     ,      ,  ,     , 

Thutmose  I.  had  been  a  great  warrior;  he  had  subdued 
the  Nubians  and  Ethiopians  in  Africa,  and  then,  roused  to  a 
spirit  of  conquest,  he  had  pushed  into  Asia,  revenged  the  indig- 
nities inflicted  upon  his  people  by  the  Hyksos,  and  had  made  his 
power  felt  far  beyond  the  Euphrates.  When  no  longer  able  to 
rule,  he  left  the  widest  empire  the  worid  had  yet  seen  to  his 
daughter  Hatshepsut,  aged  twenty-four,  and  to  his  seventeen 
year  old  son.  Hatshepsut  had  inherited  her  father's  great  ability 
and  tireless  energy;  the  son  was  weak  and  purposeless.  His 
untimely  death  gave  occasion  for  many  both  then  and  since  to 
wonder  if  his  vindictive  sister  did  all  she  could  to  save  him. 
Certain  it  is  that  Queen  Hatshepsut  rallied  sufficiently  from  the 
shock  of  his  death  to  reign  for  many  years. 

It  was  very  discor.certing  to  a  nation  so  strongly  held  by 
tradition  and  veneration  for  established  customs  as  was  Egypt, 
to  have  a  woman  on  the  throne  of  the  Pharaohs.  This  is 
amusingly  shown  in  temples  where  her  loyal  supporters  sought 
to  lessen  prejudices  felt  because  she  was  a  woman  by  por- 
traying pictures  designed  to  show  that  her  birth  had  been 
attended  by  special  marks  of  favor  and  of  prophecy  on  the 
part  of  the  gods.  In  these,  however,  she  is  often  represented  as 
a  boy.  She  seems  to  have  regretted  not  having  been  a  man, 
and  no  doubt  the  matter  was  constantly  thrust  before  her  and 
she  was  forced  to  feel  how  greatly  this  placed  her  at  a  dis- 
advantage among  her  subjects.  She  seems  to  have  made 
heroic  efforts  to  modify  the  differences  in  sex  as  much  as 
possible  by  assuming  a  beard  and  by  having  herself  represented 
in  art  in  a  king's  official  dress.  Furthermore,  a  bewildering 
use  of  pronouns  seem  to  have  been  employed  concerning  her, 
and  such  phrases  as  :  "  his  majesty  herself,"  and  others  similar 
have  come  down  to  us. 

Great  benefits  came  to  Egypt  when  the  ruler's  attention 
was  directed  from  conquest  to  internal  improvements,  and 
these  last  occupied  the  energy  of  this  capable  queen  throughout 
her  reign.  Instead  of  erecting  pyramids  or  tombs,  she  at  once 
began  to  build  a  temple  in  which  she  might  be  worshipped 
»ft«r  death — for  in  Egypt  a  ruler  wai  worshipped  as  a  god  after 


THE  STORY   OF   EGYPT.  59 

his  death.  Nor  would  Hatshepsut  have  her  temple  like  those 
around  her.  Rather,  a  site  was  chosen  out  of  Thebes,  where  the 
hills  rose  to  quite  an  elevation.  A  series  of  four  terraces,  each 
having  its  beautiful  colonnade,  led  to  the  temple  itself,  which 
was  hewn  out  of  the  rocky  hill. 

The  young  queen  wished  to  build  such  a  temple  as  she 
fancied  might  have  been  sacred  to  Amon — the  ancient  deity  of 
Thebes — in  his  own  land  of  Punt,  on  the  East  African  coast. 
It  was  a  myth  of  the  Egyptians  that  long  before  they  existed, 
the  gods  abode  in  the  land  of  Punt,  called  by  them  the  Holy- 
land,  or  God's  land.  Tradition  held  that  in  this  land  the  myrrh 
tree  was  sacred  to  Amon,  and  so  one  day  Queen  Hatshepsut 
announced  to  her  ministers  that  the  god  Amon  had  revealed 
to  her  his  desire  that  here  in  Thebes,  before  the  new  temple, 
his  favorite  myrrh  tree  should  grow. 

Now  myrrh  incense  for  offerings  had  been  procured  from 
merchantmen  who  brought  their  spices  into  Egypt,  and  the 
tree  itself  grew  only  in  Punt,  which  lay  to  the  furthermost 
corner  of  the  ancient  world.  However,  the  queen  was  deter- 
mined to  satisfy  the  god — and  incidentally,  perhaps,  her  own 
fancy.  So,  nothing  daunted,  her  subjects  set  to  work  to  con- 
struct a  fleet  suitable  for  the  journey  necessary  for  procuring 
the  incense-bearing  tree. 

It  is  supposed  that  some  canal  connected  the  river  with 
the  Red  Sea ;  whether  or  not  this  was  the  case,  the  ships  were 
built  at  Thebes,  and  there  is  no  record  of  their  having  been 
carried  over  land  to  the  port.  They  were  fitted  out  with  both 
sails  and  oars,  so  that  the  expedition  might  not  be  hindered 
by  calm  weather.  Beside  the  oarsmen  and  the  crew,  soldiers 
accompanied  the  fleet  to  give  protection  should  it  be  needed. 

After  many  days  the  ships  came  at  last  to  the  Holy  Land,  or 
Punt.  Messengers  were  dispatched  to  the  native  king  with 
presents  from  Queen  Hatshepsut  and  a  request  that  he 
acknowledge  the  sovereignty  of  Egypt,  and  allow  her  subjects 
to  bring  back  products  from  his  land — especially  the  coveted 
incense-tree.  The  king  was  delighted  with  the  gifts  and  made 
up  a  procession  to  go  down  to  the  shore  and  meet  the  Egyptians. 
He  had  a  funny  little  dwarf  wife,  belonging,  it  is  supposed,  to 
one  of  the  dwarf  tribes  of  interior  Africa.  She  on  her  donkey, 
her  three  children,  the  king  and  several  of  his  chiefs,  proceeded 


6o  THE  world's  progress. 

to  the  shore  to  greet  the  strangers.  They  were  led  to  the  native 
houses — curious  round  huts  built  on  piles  and  entered  only 
by  ladders,  while  palm  and  incense  trees  sheltered  their  occu- 
pants from  the  hot  rays  of  the  tropical  sun.  The  travelers  were 
treated  royally  throughout  their  sojourn  in  the  land  of  Punt, 
and  were  allowed  to  exchange  the  products  they  had  brought 
from  the  valley  of  the  Nile  for  the  native  products — such  as 
ebony,  ivory,  incense,  leopard  skins,  metals,  and  the  much 
desired  myrrh  trees. 

At  length  the  Egyptians  were  ready  to  set  sail  for  the 
home  land,  and  now  some  of  the  natives,  the  dwarf  queen,  some 
of  the  chief  men  and  others  decided  to  return  with  them  and 
see  the  queen  of  great  renown ;  so  with  these  for  passengers,  the 
ships  cleared  port. 

Upon  arrival,  their  return  was  the  occasion  for  a  gala-day 
at  the  capital.  The  state  troops  were  out  on  parade,  the  veterans 
of  the  expedition  formed  in  procession  with  the  thirty-one  myrrh 
trees  which  had  been  carefully  packed  and  shielded  under  awn- 
ing from  the  sun's  rays ;  the  strange  animals  from  Punt — dogs, 
baboons,  monkeys,  a  tame  leopard  with  his  keeper,  natives  who 
gave  their  war  dance,  the  dwarf  queen  of  Punt,  who  with  her 
chief  men  brought  gifts  to  Hatshepsut — all  these  made  up  a 
great  spectacle  sufficiently  absorbing  to  the  throngs  who  filled 
the  streets  of  Thebes.  All  went  to  the  temple  where  Queen 
Hatshepsut  made  offerings  to  Amon,  and  then  the  myrrh  trees 
were  planted  before  his  temple.  It  would  be  interesting  to 
know  how  many  of  these  thirty-one  trees  withstood  the  radical 
change,  but  probably  trees  which  had  occasioned  such  a  national 
outlay  had  no  choice  but  to  flourish. 

Queen  Hatshepsut  felt  a  natural  pride  in  the  result  of  her 
expedition  which  had  the  effect  of  establishing  lasting  trade 
between  the  two  countries,  to  the  benefit  of  both.  She  did  not 
wish  it  to  be  forgotten,  and  so  had  the  whole  story  depicted  on 
the  walls  of  her  temple  by  artists  who  probably  accompanied  the 
fleet.  There  some  of  the  pictures  may  still  be  seen.  The  first 
portrays  the  embarking  of  the  Egyptian  fleet.  An  inscription 
before  it  reads :  "These  are  the  ships  which  the  wind  brought 
along  with  it.  The  voyage  on  the  sea,  the  attainment  of  the 
longed-for  aim  in  the  Holy  Land,  the  happy  arrival  of  the 
Egyptian  soldiers  in  the  land  of  Punt,  according  to  the  arrange- 


THE   STORY   OF   EGYPT.  9l 

ment  of  Amon,  King  of  the  gods,  Lord  of  the  terrestrial  thrones 
in  Thebes,  in  order  to  bring  to  him  the  treasure?  of  the  whole 
land  in  such  quantities  as  will  satisfy  him.  This  was  done  by 
the  Queen  of  Egypt,  the  daughter  of  the  Sun,  never  has  any- 
thing similar  been  done  in  the  times  of  a  former  king  in  this 
country."* 

The  second  scene  shows  the  reception  In  Punt  ;  the  third, 
the  traffic  ;  the  fourth  picture,  the  loading  of  ships  for  the 
return.  Men  are  seen  bringing  trees  and  other  products  of  Punt 
on  board  This  inscription  reads :  "The  loading  of  the  ships 
of  transport  with  a  great  quantity  of  the  magnificent  products 
of  Arabia,^  with  all  kinds  of  precious  woods  of  the  Holy  Land, 
with  heaps  of  incense,  resin,  with  verdant  incense  trees,  with 
ebony,  with  pure  ivory,  with  gold,  and  silver  from  the  land  of 
Amon,  with  tesep-wood  and  the  cassia  bark,  incense,  hounds, 
skins  of  leopards,  apes,  monkeys,  with  women  and  children. 
Never  has  a  coming  been  made  like  this  by  any  king  since  the 
creation  of  the  world." 

The  fifth  is  the  "Return  to  Thebes."  The  accompanying 
inscription :  "Excursion  completed  satisfactorily ,  happy 
arrival  at  Thebes  to  the  joy  of  the  Egyptian  soldiers.  The 
princes  of  Punt  after  arrival  in  this  country,  bringing  with  them 
costly  things  of  the  Arabian^  land,  such  as  never  had  yet  been 
brought  by  any  Egyptian  king,  for  the  Supreme  Majesty  of  the 
god  Amon-Ra,  Lord  of  the  terrestrial  thrones." 

The  sixth  scene  represents  the  presentation  of  the  tribute 
of  Punt  to  the  Queen,  while  princes  of  that  land  kneeling  before 
her  ask  for  peace. 

"Homage  to  thy  countenance, 
O  Queen  of  Egypt,  Sun, 
Beaming  like  the  sun-disk 
After  your  mistress,  who  is 
Arabia's^  mistress." 

In  the  seventh  painting  the  Queen  offers  gifts  to  Amon; 
the  eighth  shows  the  weighing  of  the  incense;  the  ninth, 
the  formal  announcement  of  the  successful  expedition  before 


*  These   inscriptions   are   translated   in   Records   of   the    Past.   ed.   by 
Sayce,  Vol.  X 

'The  translation  is  to  be  corrected  to  Punt 
1—6 


62  THE  WORIJ)*S  PROGRESS. 

Amon,  and  the  tenth  and  last,  the  formal  announcement  of 
the  happy  issue  before  the  Egyptian  court. 

Other  paintings  which  adorn  the  walls  of  this  temple, 
depicting  the  birth  of  the  Queen  and  the  guardianship  exer- 
cised over  her  by  the  goddess  Hathor,  while  less  famous  are 
quite  as  indelible  and  interesting  from  a  social  standpoint. 

This  temple  in  its  architectural  conception  was  a  departure 
from  Egyptian  models.  It  impresses  us  with  its  fine  pro- 
portion and  the  skillful  use  of  the  colonnade. 

It  has  not  long  been  accessible  to  visitors,  having  been 
uncovered  only  in  the  last  few  years. 

Other  building  enterprises  were  undertaken  by  Queen 
Hatshepsut,  notably  the  erection  of  two  obelisks  of  polished 
granite  in  honor  of  Amon. 

Possessing  some  tributary  territory  in  Asia  and  Punt  and 
maintaining  a  policy  of  peace,  the  national  revenue  was  much 
increased.  The  proud  queen  left  a  record  of  her  kingdom's 
prosperity  chronicled  in  stone  :  "  My  southern  boundary  is 
as  far  as  Punt  ;  my  eastern  boundary  as  far  as  the  marshes  of 
Asia,  and  the  Asiatics  are  in  my  grasp  ;  my  western  boundary 
is  as  far  as  the  mountain  of  Manu  (or  the  sunset)  ;  my  fame 
is  among  the  Sand  dwellers  altogether.  The  myrrh  of  Punt 
has  been  brought  to  me,  all  the  luxurious  marvels  of  this  country 
were  brought  to  my  palace  in  one  collection.  They  have 
brought  me  the  choicest  products,  of  cedar,  of  juniper,  and  of 
meru-wood  ;  all  the  goodly  sweet  woods  of  God's-land.  I 
brought  the  tribute  of  Libya,  consisting  of  ivory  and  seven 
hundred  tusks  which  were  there,  numerous  panther  skins  of 
five  cubits  along  the  back  and  four  cubits  wide.'" 

In  addition  to  new  structures,  Queen  Hatshepsut  repaired 
temples  fallen  in  decay.  In  one  of  these  temples  she  caused 
to  be  written  :  "  I  have  restored  that  which  was  in  ruins, 
I  have  raised  up  that  which  was  unfinished  since  the  Asiatics 
were  in  the  midst  of  the  Northland,  and  the  barbarians  in  the 
midst  of  them,  overthrowing  that  which  had  been  made  while 
they  ruled  in  ignorance  of  Ra."* 

Thutmose  III.,  a  younger  brother— a  mere  child  at  the  death 

ofjus  father— grew  restless  at  being  held  so  long  from  the 

•Trans,  by  Breasted,  History  of  Egypt.  280 
•Ibid. 


The   story  O^  EGYPT. 


63 


throne  by  his  ambitious  sister.  The  sudden  death  of  the  queen 
again  raised  the  question  as  to  whether  the  sovereign  had  died 
as  a  result  of  court  intrigue.  Certain  it  is  that  Thutmose  III. 
retahated  for  the  restraint  the  queen  had  exercised  over  him 
by  commanding  that  her  name  be  stricken  from  all  the  monu- 
ments she  had  erected,  his  own  to  be  substituted.  Fortunately 
his  workmen  followed  his  instructions  so  badly  that  it  has  been 
possible  to  read  the  original  name  in  many  cases,  and  thus 
possible  to  trace  the  career  of  the  world's  earliest  recorded 
queen.  Thus  have  later  ages  been  able  to  realize  how  well 
Queen  Hatshepsut  met  the  requirements  of  her  day,  and  to 
appreciate  her  courage  in  overcoming  the  prejudices  which  as 
a  woman  on  the  throne  of  the  Pharaohs  she  is  sure  to  have 
encountered. 


QUEKN    HATSHEPSUT. 


6«f  thr  worij>'s  progress. 


CHAPTER  Vll. 
Great  Military  Kings. 

The  accession  of  a  new  king  was  the  signal  for  Asiatic 
nations,  long  held  in  tribute,  to  revolt  from  a  servitude  that 
had  always  been  galling  to  their  pride.  Thutmose  III.  at  once 
estabhshed  his  reputation  as  a  king  of  prompt  decision  and 
strength  by  marching  immediately  into  the  revolting  territories 
and  defeating  the  league  formed  against  him.  During  his 
reign  of  some  fifty  years  he  is  reputed  to  have  carried  on 
nineteen  campaigns.  The  wealth  of  Egypt  was  materially 
increased  by  these  expeditions  which  were  frequently  maraud- 
ing excursions  rather  than  open-battle  victories. 

"Altogether  Thothmes  [Thutmose]  III.  is  said  to  have  car- 
ried off  from  the  subject  countries  about  11,000  captives,  1,670 
chariots,  3,639  horses,  4,491  of  the  larger  cattle,  more  than  35,- 
000  goats,  silver  to  the  amount  of  3,940  pounds,  and  gold  to  the 
amount  of  9,954  pounds.  He  also  conveyed  to  Egypt  from  the 
conquered  lands  enormous  quantities  of  corn  and  wines,  together 
with  incense,  balsam,  honey,  ivory,  ebony,  and  other  rare 
woods,  lapis  lazuli,  furniture,  statues,  vases,  dishes,  basins, 
tent-poles,  bows,  habergeons,  fruit-trees,  live  birds,  and 
monkeys  I  With  a  curiosity  which  was  insatiable,  he  noted 
all  that  was  strange  or  unusual  in  the  lands  which  he  visited, 
and  sought  to  introduce  the  various  novelties  into  his  own 
proper  country.  Two  unknown  kinds  of  birds,  and  a  variety 
of  the  goose,  which  he  found  in  Mesopotamia,  and  transported 
from  the  valley  of  the  Khabour  to  that  of  the  Nile,  are  said 
to  have  been  *  dearer  to  the  king  than  anything  else.'  His 
artists  had  instructions  to  make  careful  studies  of  the  different 
objects,  and  to  represent  them  faithfully  on  his  monuments. 
We  see  on  these  'water-lilies  as  high  as  trees,  plants  of  a 
growth  like  cactuses,  all  sort  of  trees  and  shrubs,  leaves, 
flowers,  and  fruits,  including  melons  and  pomegranates  ;  oxen 
and  calves  also  figure,  and  among  them  a  wonderful  animal 
with  three  horns.  There  are  likewise  herons,  sparrow-hawks, 
geese  and  doves.'    All  these  appear  gaily  intermixed  in  the 


THE   STORY   OF   EGYPT.  65 

pictures,  as  suited  the  simple  childlike  conception  of  the  artist. 
An  inscription  tells  the  intention  of  the  monarch.  '  Here,'  it 
runs,  *  are  all  sorts  of  plants  and  all  sorts  of  flowers  of  the 
Holy  Land,  which  the  king  discovered  when  he  went  to  the 
land  of  Ruten  to  conquer  it.  Thus  says  the  king — I  swear 
by  the  sun,  and  I  call  to  witness  my  father  Amon,  that  all  is 
plain  truth  ;  there  is  no  trace  of  deception  in  that  which  I 
relate.  What  the  splendid  soil  brings  forth  in  the  way  of 
production  I  have  portrayed  in  these  pictures,  with  the  inten- 
tion of  offering  them  to  my  father  Amon,  as  a  memorial  for 
all  times.'  '" 

Egypt  had  now  become  so  powerful  that  many  of  the 
Phoenician  cities  voluntarily  came  under  her  protection,  think- 
ing in  this  way  they  could  best  secure  safety  for  their  ex- 
tensive commerce  on  the  seas.  The  Phoenicians  were  the  mid- 
dle-men for  antiquity  and  desired  above  all  to  keep  their  tri- 
remes safe  from  sea  pirates.  Seeking  the  protection  of  the 
greatest  world  power,  in  this  age  they  turned  to  Egypt. 

A  vast  amount  of  Asiatic  plunder  found  its  way  to  the 
temples  as  offerings  to  the  gods  who  were  supposed  to  have 
made  victory  possible.  This  accumulation  of  wealth  within 
the  temples  proved  a  most  important  factor  in  strengthening 
the  priesthood — a  power  with  w^hich  the  future  had  to  reckon. 

A  song  of  victory,  composed  in  honor  of  Thutmose  HI., 
is  preserved  in  the  temple  of  Karnak.  The  god  Amon  is  sup- 
posed to  be  speaking.  We  may  be  sure  that  it  was  not  wholly 
the  flattery  of  priests,  written  to  appease  the  ruler,  but  that 
it  embodied  the  general  opinion  as  to  the  power  bestowed  by 
the  god  upon  the  king,  who  was  his  representative  upon  earth. 

» Rawlinson,  Ancient  Egypt,  196. 


fl6  THE  WORU>'S  PROGRESS. 

Hymn  oe  Victory.*  (Amon  speaking.) 

I  have  come,  causing  thee  to  smite  the  princes  of  Zahi ; 
I  have  hurled  them  beneath  thy  feet  among  their  highlands. 
I  have  caused  them  to  see  thy  majesty  as  lord  of  radiance. 
So  that  thou  hast  shone  in  their  faces  like  my  image. 

I  have  come,  causing  thee  to  smite  the  Asiatics, 

Thou  hast  made  captive  the  heads  of  the  Asiatics  of  Retenu. 

I  have  caused  them  to  see  thy  majesty  equipped  with  thy  adornment 

When  thou  takest  the  weapons  of  war  in  the  chariot 

I  have  come,  causing  thee  to  smite  the  eastern  land, 
Thou  hast  trampled  those  who  are  in  the  districts  of  God's-Land. 
I  have  caused  them  to  see  thy  majesty  like  a  circling  star. 
When  it  scatters  its  flame  in  fire,  and  gives  forth  its  dew. 

I  have  come,  causing  thee  to  smite  the  western  land, 
Keftyew  and  Cyprus  are  in  terror. 
I  have  caused  them  to  see  thy  majesty  as  a  young  bull, 
Firm  of  heart,  ready-homed,  irresistible. 

I  have  come,  causing  thee  to  smite  those  who  are  in  their  marshes, 
The  lands  of  Mitanni  tremble  under  fear  of  thee. 
I  have  caused  them  to  see  thy  majesty  as  a  crocodile. 
Lord  of  fear  in  the  water,  unapproachable. 

I  have  come,  causing  thee  to  smite  those  who  are  in  their  isles ; 
Those  who  are  in  the  midst  of  the  Great  Green  (sea)  hear  thy 

roarings. 
I  have  caused  them  to  see  thy  majesty  as  an  avenger, 
Who  rises  upon  the  back  of  his  slain  victim.     .     .     . 

I  have  come,  [causing  thee  to  smite  the  uttermost  ends  of  the  lands, 
The  circuit  of  the  Great  Circle  (Okeanos)  is  included  in  thy  grasp. 
I  have  caused  them  to  see  thy  majesty  as  a  lord  of  wing  (hawk). 
Who  seizeth  upon  that  which  he  seeth,  as  much  as  he  desires. 

*  Breasted.  Ancient  Records.  II.  §§  658f. 


THE  STORY  O^   EGYPT.  67 

I  have  come,  causing  thee  to  smite  the  Nubian  Troglodytes, 
As  far  as  Shat  (they)  are  in  thy  grasp. 
I  have  caused  them  to  see  thy  majesty  as  thy  two  brothers.' 
I  have  united  their  two  arms  for  thee  in  victory. 

Thy  two  sisters,'^  I  have  set  them  as  protection  behind  thee. 
The  arms  of  my  majesty  are  above,  warding  off  evil. 
I  have  caused  thee  to  reign,  my  beloved  son, 
Horus,  Mighty  Bull,  Shining  in  Thebes,  whom  I  have  begotten  in 
uprightness  of  heart. 

Thutmose,  living  forever,  who  hast  done  for  me  all  that  my  ka 

desired ; 
Thou  hast  erected  my  dwelling  as  an  everlasting  work, 
Enlarging  and  extending  it  more  than  the  past  which  has  been. 
Thou  hast  feted  the  beauty  of  Amon-Re, 

Thy  monuments  are  greater  than  those  of  any  king  who  has  been. 
When  I  commanded  thee  to  do  it,  I  was  satisfied  therewith ; 
I  established  thee  upon  the  Horus-throne  of  millions  of  years. 

Thutmose  III.  left  his  individuality  strongly  stamped  upon 
the  empire  his  military  skill  had  welded  together.  Tribute 
poured  into  his  coffers  from  all  the  petty  nations  throughout 
western  Asia,  from  the  tribes  of  the  Sahara,  and  lands  south 
of  Egypt.  He  was  reckoned  without  question  the  greatest  mili- 
tary leader  the  country  ever  produced,  and  he  was  a  tireless 
builder.  The  great  temple  of  Amon  in  the  city  of  Thebes  was 
his  pride  and  many  other  temples  were  built  and  restored 
by  him.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  but  no  very  important 
event  claims  our  attention  until  the  accession  of  his  great  grand- 
son, Amenhotep  IV. 

The  beautiful  Queen  Tiy  was  the  mother  of  this  monarch. 
There  is  no  foundation  for  the  oft  repeated  assertion  that  she 
was  of  foreign,  probably  Asiatic,  origin.  Maspero's  belief  that 
she  was  of  Egyptian  (perhaps  obscure)  origin  is  most  probable. 
We  may  well  believe  that  she  exercised  considerable  power  over 
her  son,  but  we  have  no  evidence  for  asserting  that  it  was  from 
her  that  he  received  the  new  religion  which  he  attempted  to 
force  upon  the  country,  as  a  result  of  which  the  whole  land 
was  thrown  into  a  tumult 


*  Horus   and   Set. 
*Isis  and  Nephthys. 


68  THE  world's  progress. 

We  have  already  seen  that  Egypt  was  originally  composed 
of  many  little  states,  each  independent  of  the  rest  and  each 
having  its  own  religious  system  and  customs.  As  the  many 
states  were  assimilated  into  one,  a  state  religion  resulted,  into 
which  the  main  elements  of  each  local  cult  were  combined. 
Although  the  people  throughout  the  land  worshipped  the  state 
god,  the  local  gods  were  always  more  particularly  endeared 
to  the  masses.  Now  had  Amenhotep  IV.  desired  to  change 
the  state  god,  the  official  deity,  the  people  would  have  accepted 
the  change  readily,  but  when  he  attempted  to  sweep  away  the 
entire  religious  system  of  his  realm  and  substitute  an  utterly 
new  system,  the  masses  could  not  understand  such  a  radical 
change.  They  were  enraged  at  what  they  considered  an  indig- 
nity put  upon  their  gods  and  the  gods  of  their  fathers. 

Realizing  how  impossible  it  would  be  to  accomplish  his 
reform  in  the  ancient  city  of  Thebes,  the  king  determined  to 
change  his  capital.  Thebes  Ijad  long  been  the  religious  as 
well  as  the  political  center,  and  the  worship  of  Amon  was 
fundamentally  associated  with  the  city.  In  order  to  set  up  the 
worship  of  one  deity,  Aton — the  Solar  Disk — in  place  of  Amon, 
with  the  complex  system  of  deities,  Amenhotep  IV.  went  north 
of  Thebes  and  began  the  construction  of  a  new  capital^  which 
was  never  completed.  Its  name  signified  "The  Horizon  of  the 
Solar  Disk."  Within  this  new  capital  the  new  religion  was  to 
be  firmly  established  and  thence  spread  throughout  the  realm. 
Just  what  teachings  this  religion  embodied  is  not  now  under- 
stood. While  the  sun  was  worshipped  in  a  new  form  as  Aton, 
this  may  have  been  merely  symbolic  of  one  God — one  Spirit, 
felt  to  be  one  and  alone.  Acceptance  of  the  Solar  Disk  religion 
necessitated  an  abandoning  of  all  earlier  deities,  especially  the 
powerful  Amon,  and  his  name  was  commanded  to  be  stricken 
from  all  monuments  throughout  the  land. 

The  result  of  this  religious  crusade  was  a  total  failure. 
Amenhotep  IV.  realized  how  great  was  the  innovation  he  sought 
to  make,  but  he  underestimated  the  strength  of  the  priests  of 
Amon,  the  treasures  of  whose  temple  at  Thebes  were  loaded  with 


'  On  the  site  of  the  modern  Tell  el-Amarna,  about  a  hundred  and 
sixty  miles  south  of  Cairo,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Nile.  Here  the 
famous  Tell  el-Amarna  Letters  were  discovered  in   1887. 


H 


O 


THE   STORY   OF   EGYPT.  69 

the  spoil  of  Asia,  This  "reform"  while  in  line  with  the  the- 
ology, was  utterly  at  variance  with  the  popular  religion  of  the 
day.  Angered  beyond  measure  by  the  injury  to  their  faith,  the 
people  rose  up  against  the  new  teaching.  The  old-time  worship 
was  reinstated,  the  former  deities  elevated  to  their  former  dig- 
nity, and  the  Eighteenth  dynasty  which  had  begun  so  auspi- 
ciously came  to  an  end  in  confusion  and  disorder. 

Karnak. 

The  temple  of  Karnak  belongs  to  both  the  Eighteenth  and 
Nineteenth  dynasties.  Thutmose  III.,  Amenhotep  II.  and  Amen- 
hotep  III.  each  added  rooms  to  the  great  structure,  although  it 
was  left  for  Seti  I.  to  build  the  crowning  Hall  of  Pillars.  Three 
centuries  witnessed  its  erection  and  many  kings  contributed  to 
its  greatness.  Most  famous  of  all  Theban  architecture,  it  is 
still  mighty  in  its  ruins. 

Karnak  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  four  districts  into  which 
the  irregular  Nile  divided  the  city  of  Thebes.  From  this  dis- 
trict, or  ward,  the  great  temple  dedicated  to  Amon — ancient 
deity  of  Thebes — took  its  name. 

In  some  ways,  perhaps,  the  temples  of  Egypt  corresponded 
to  the  temples  of  the  Greeks,  or  even  to  modern  churches,  yet 
there  were  material  differences.  Indeed,  the  similarity  is  slight. 
Modern  churches  are  supposedly  places  of  worship  ;  Greek 
temples  were  erected  in  honor  of  Greek  gods  and  thither 
offerings  were  brought  by  a  trusting  people.  Egyptian  temples 
were  built  by  rulers  in  honor  of  some  god  whose  help  and 
protection  they  believed  had  enabled  them  to  put  down  their 
enemies  and  given  their  country  its  victories  and  prosperity. 
While  a  temple  was  erected  especially  in  honor  of  some  par- 
ticular deity,  as  Karnak  was  dedicated  to  Amon,  other  deities 
might  have  shrines  within  it.  While  it  did  honor  to  the 
god  whose  protection  had  allowed  the  ruler  to  rise  triumphantly 
above  all  obstacles,  yet  it  was  the  glory  of  the  king  that  the 
temple  exalted — his  pictures  adorned  the  walls,  his  deeds  were 
set  forth  in  minute  detail,  his  courage  in  war  and  relentless 
energy  in  times  of  peace, — these  were  carved  in  stone  and 
written  in  hieroglyphics  until  it  was  difficult  to  find  a  section 
of  wall,  a  column,   a  stone  ceiling  unadorned.     Hymns  of 


TO  tnt  world's  progress. 

victory  were  inscribed  in  the  temples  ;  songs  of  praise  and  fill' 
some  flattery  not  infrequently  were  composed  by  the  priests. 
Sometimes  the  god  who  presided  over  the  temple  seems  to 
have  been  well  nigh  lost  sight  of,  yet  even  so,  honor  was 
accorded  him,  since  the  king  was  his  representative  on  earth. 
Because  Karnak  received  the  particular  care  of  many  kings,  it 
is  one  of  the  most  interesting  temples  to  study,  apart  from  its 
beauty,  its  stupendous  size  and  proportions. 

Lists  of  dimensions  are  seldom  interesting,  and  yet,  unless 
we  compare  the  size  of  Egyptian  structures  to  others  known  to 
us,  we  fail  utterly  to  grasp  the  tremendous  scale  on  which 
these  people  built.  We  have  mentioned  the  avenue,  more  than 
a  mile  in  length,  guarded  on  either  side  with  sphinxes,  which 
connected  this  temple  with  one  built  by  Queen  Hatshepsut.  This 
avenue  led  finally  to  a  gateway,  flanked  on  both  sides  by 
towers.  Either  of  these  towers  were  themselves  spacious 
enough  to  have  contained  a  temple.  The  temple  court  was 
enclosed  by  a  wall  25  feet  thick  and  varying  from  60  to  100 
feet  in  height.  Vast  wealth  was  stored  in  the  temple,  and  this 
wall  made  it  possible,  in  an  age  before  gunpowder,  to  protect 
the  place  from  sudden  attacks — always  possible  contingencies. 
The  temple  itself  was  1,180  feet  long  and  600  feet  wide,  and 
was  composed  of  many  rooms  and  halls  built  by  various  kings. 
We  shall  give  attention  to  one  alone — the  famous  Hall  of 
Pillars. 

Often  has  it  been  said  that  to  describe  this  hall  and  do  it 
justice  exceeds  the  power  of  mortals.  It  is  on  such  a  vast 
scale  that  modern  times  have  produced  no  structures  with 
which  to  compare  it. 

The  Hall  of  Pillars  was  originally  329  feet  long  and  170 
feet  in  width.  Through  its  center  were  placed  two  rov^s  of 
columns,  six  in  each  row.  Excluding  pedestal  and  capital, 
these  measured  60  feet  in  height  and  in  circumference  were  so 
large  that  should  six  men  stand  with  arms  extended,  fingers 
touching,  they  could  scarcely  encompass  one.  Seven  rows  of 
pillars,  somewhat  smaller,  were  placed  on  either  side  of  these  ; 
the  ceiling  was  supported  by  all  these  columns  and  was  formed 
of  mammoth  blocks  of  stone.  Finally  the  entire  interior  was 
covered  with  sculptures,  paintings,  and  hieroglyphics — all  re- 
counting the  exploits  of  the  king  who  built  the  hall.  In  a 
similar  fashion  the  entire  temple  was  ornamented. 


THE   STORY    OF    EGYPT. 


71 


King  succeeded  king  and  each  burned  with  ambition  to 
exceed  the  skill  of  his  predecessor.  Room  after  room  was 
added  to  Karnak  and  the  original  plan  greatly  expanded.  Seti 
I.  however  built  on  such  a  tremendous  plan  that  none  other 
eclipsed  him,  and  the  Hall  of  Pillars  remains  today  a  mighty 
monument  to  a  mighty  ruler. 


AMMON-RA,  THE  GREAT  GOD  OF 
TEEBBS. 


72  THE  wori,d's  progress. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
The  Nineteenth  Dynasty/ 

Before  Seti  1.,  founder  of  the  Nineteenth  dynasty,  succeeded 
to  the  throne,  peace  and  order  had  been  once  more  restored  to 
Egy^pt.  One  important  change  had  crept  into  the  military  Hfe 
of  the  country,  which  was  to  lead  to  trouble  later  on.  Here- 
tofore, Egypt  had  depended  solely  upon  her  national  troops 
to  protect  her  borders  and  maintain  her  position  as  first 
among  the  nations.  Now  her  armies  were  increased  by  merce- 
naries— foreign  soldiers  hired  to  do  her  fighting  for  her.  His- 
tory has  shown  that  uniformly  when  a  people  ceases  to  depend 
upon  its  own  citizens  for  the  main  strength  of  its  army,  taking 
instead  hired  soldiers  who  fight  simply  for  the  love  of  fighting 
and  for  gain,  serving  one  cause  today  and  another  tomorrow, — 
whenever  a  nation  has  adopted  this  policy  of  providing  its 
armed  forces,  its  years  of  strength  are  numbered.  So  it  was 
in  Egypt.  Troops  from  Libya,  from  Nubia  and  Ethiopia 
made  up  her  armies.  During  times  of  peace  they  returned  to 
their  kindred  and  gave  glowing  accounts  of  the  vast  wealth 
of  the  Nile  valley.  It  came  about  naturally  then,  that  African, 
as  well  as  Asiatic,  tribes  looked  with  longing  eyes  upon  the 
coveted  country  and  stood  ready  at  the  first  sign  of  internal 
weakness  to  revolt  and  share  the  spoils.  Strong  rulers  of  the 
Nineteenth  dynasty  held  their  possessions  intact,  and  foreign 
nations  bided  the  time  when  the  first  sign  of  weakness  should 
be  the  signal  for  action. 

The  immediate  successor  of  Thutmose  III.  had  little  trouble 
in  keeping  Syria  in  subjection.  Taxes  regularly  reached  Thebes. 
During  the  reigns  of  the  Amenhoteps,  III.  and  IV.,  the  Hittites 
began  pushing  south  from  Asia  Minor  and  organizing  the  revolt 
against  Egypt.  Upon  ascending  the  throne  Seti  I.  found  it 
expedient  to  push  into  western  Asia  and  quell  a  vigorous  upris- 
ing. He  was  one  of  Egypt's  most  capable  and  farsighted  kings, 
and  being  as  well  a  fearless  warrior,  he  carried  all  before  him. 
He  struck  terror  to  the  hearts  of  his  enemies  and  returned  home 


'1350-1205  B.  c 


THE  STORY  OF   EGYPT.  73 

to  find  the  Libyans  threatening  his  western  borders.  After 
defeating  their  chiefs  with  great  slaughter,  Seti  I.  received  r, 
large  number  of  their  soldiers  into  his  army  as  mercenaries. 
This  did  very  well  for  the  time,  but  before  four  hundred  vears 
had  passed,  their  chiefs  had  become  powerful  enough  to  snatch 
the  throne  of  Egypt  from  its  rightful  claimants. 

Like  most  Egyptian  rulers,  Seti  L  was  a  builder.  From 
earliest  years  in  Egypt,  imposing  structures  had  supplied  surest 
means  by  which  a  monarch  could  leave  evidences  of  his  power. 
The  position  of  chief  architect  to  the  king  had  been  filled  by 
princes,  who  held  it  as  a  post  of  honor.  Often  the  king's 
sons  planned  temples  for  the  king's  construction,  and  not  in- 
irequently  gave  personal  supervision  to  their  erection. 

During  the  last  period  of  civil  disorder,  many  public 
monuments  and  temples  had  fallen  into  decay.  These  Seti  L 
caused  to  be  restored.  He  invariably  adhered  to  the  original 
ideas  of  the  builder,  adding  but  an  inscription  to  show  that  by 
him  they  were  restored.  In  this  respect  his  course  differed 
widely  from  that  of  many  of  the  Egyptian  kings,  notably 
Ramses  IL,  who  boldly  appropriated  scores  of  temples  and 
monuments,  substituting  his  name  for  that  of  the  original 
builder.  Frequently  his  workmen  did  their  task  so  badly  that 
the  first  name  has  been  deciphered.  In  other  cases,  the  true 
builder  of  the  temple  is  now  uncertain. 

It  was  this  king  who  erected  the  Hall  of  Pillars,  of  which 
we  have  just  learned.  While  temples  were  erected  and  restored 
throughout  the  land,  much  of  his  attention  was  directed  to 
Thebes — the  great  and  splendid  city  so  long  the  capital  of 
Egypt. 

Thebes  was  built  on  the  east  side  of  the  river.  On  this 
side  dwelt  the  pharaohs,  the  wealthy,  and  the  poor.  Here 
too  were  the  shops,  the  places  of  business  and  amusement.  In 
fact,  all  the  interests  of  living,  pulsing  Thebes  were  centered 
nere,  Ovt  this  side  also,  in  the  district  of  Karnak,  was  the 
great  temple  of  Amon.  South  of  it  rose  the  palace  of  the  king  ; 
around  this  were  mansions  of  the  wealthy,  while  in  the  narrow 
streets  reaching  into  the  desert  lived  those  of  moderate  and 
limited  means.  South  of  Karnak  lay  the  district  of  Luxor, 
and  along  the  river  between  these  two  districts  stood  the  mud 
huts  of  the  poor. 


74  THE  world's  progress. 

Crossing  the  Nile  to  the  western  bank,  one  came  into 
radically  different  surroundings.  Here  lay  the  City  of  the 
Dead.  This  was  quite  unlike  any  cemetery  of  modern  times. 
Here  were  temples,  tombs  of  kings  and  queens,  tombs  of  the 
wealthy  and  the  prosperous  citizens,  and  the  symbolic  lake  of 
the  dead.  Here  were  the  unpretentious  tombs  of  the  masses. 
Nor  was  this  all.  We  have  seen  that  the  Egyptian  felt  it  neces- 
sary to  supply  his  dead  with  all  the  necessities  of  life,  such 
as  food,  furniture,  and  ornaments.  Here,  then,  were  the  shops 
where  such  things  might  be  obtained.  Here  were  the  embalm- 
ers,  the  makers  of  linen  used  by  them  ;  here  lived  the  priests 
who  said  prayers  over  each  finger  and  toe  of  the  deceased 
and  made  the  body  ready  for  its  everlasting  home.  On  the 
west  bank  of  the  river  lay  a  city  in  itself  very  different  from 
the  living  one  across  the  water.  Funeral  processions  constantly 
wended  their  way  to  this  City  of  the  Dead ;  wails  and  lamenta- 
tions often  mingled  in  the  air  with  songs  of  the  priests  at 
their  devotions.  At  sunset  the  gates  admitting  to  this  portion 
of  Thebes  were  locked  and  guarded  against  bands  of  robbers 
who  laid  in  wait  for  the  riches  enclosed  in  the  tombs.  The 
tombs  reached  out  to  the  rocky  range  of  hills  on  the  west  and 
were  with  difficulty  protected. 

Ancient  Thebes  extended  some  miles  in  each  direction  and 
covered  considerable  territory.  Little  today  remains  to  mark 
its  early  splendor.  The  ruins  at  Karnak,  the  ancient  mounds 
of  Luxor,  topped  by  a  squalid  Arab  village,  some  tombs  opened, 
some  still  hidden  by  the  sands,  are  left.  Much  excavating 
has  been  done  in  this  so-called  "Valley  of  the  Kings."  Strabo 
and  other  early  writers  left  some  description  of  the  original 
city,  but  aside  from  such  records,  little  is  left  today  to  indi- 
cate the  glories  of  that  Thebes  which  was  for  hundreds  of 
years  the  pride  of  Egyptian  kings. 

Ramses. 

Set!  L  was  followed  by  his  son,  the  famous  Ramses  H.. 
or  Ramses  the  Great.  Recent  historians  claim  that  this  king 
has  been  given  undue  prominence,  and  that  he  was  outranked 
by   several   Egyptian   monarchs,    including   his   own    father. 


THE   STORY   01^   EGYPT,  75 

While  this  is  probably  true,  it  would  seem  that  this  pharaoh 
was  as  popular  as  any  king  who  ruled  in  Egypt.  He  was 
young  and  handsome  when  he  ascended  the  throne,  and 
possessed  a  power  of  winning  people  to  himself.  That  he  was 
filled  with  self-pride,  no  one  can  deny.  He  attached  his  name, 
as  we  have  seen,  to  every  temple  and  monument  where  it  was 
possible,  and  scattered  statues  of  himself  broadcast.  Yet  the 
only  poem  that  suggests  the  epic  in  all  Egyptian  literature  is 
the  one  known  as  "  Pentuar's  Poem,"  in  which  his  bravery 
at  the  battle  of  Kadesh  was  sung. 

Ramses  had  penetrated  into  Asia  to  bring  the  revolting 
tribes  back  to  submission.  During  this  particular  battle,  he 
became  separated  from  his  body  guard  and  suddenly  found 
himself  facing  2,500  charioteers  alone.  His  personal  bravery 
on  that  occasion  was  splendid  ;  his  soldiers  pressed  on  to  him 
quickly,  but  his  daring  was  seen  by  them  and  greatly  admired. 
The  poem  of  Pentuar  was  written  to  celebrate  the  king's  cour- 
age in  this  crisis. 

Pentuar's  Poem.* 

"  Then  the  King  stood  forth,  and,  radiant  with  courage, 
He  looked  like  the  Sun-god  armed  and  eager  for  battle. 
The  noble  steeds  that  bore  him  into  the  struggle — 

*  Victory  to  Thebes '  was  the  name  of  one,  and  the  other 
Was  called  '  contented  Nura' — were  foaled  in  the  stables 
Of  him  we  call  '  the  elect,' '  the  beloved  of  Amon,' 

*  Lord  of  truth,'  the  chosen  vicar  of  Ra. 

Up  sprang  the  king  and  threw  himself  on  the  foe. 

The  swaying  ranks  of  the  contemptible  Cheta. 

He  stood  alone — alone,  and  no  man  with  him. 

As  thus  the  king  stood  forth  all  eyes  were  upon  him. 

And  soon  he  was  enmeshed  by  men  and  horses. 

And  by  the  enemy's  chariots,  two  thousand  five  hundred, 

The  foe  behind  hemmed  him  in,  and  enclosed  him. 

Dense  the  array  of  the  contemptible  Cheta, 

Dense  the  swarm  of  warriors  out  of  Arad, 

Dense  the  Mysian  host,  the  Pisidian  legions. 


^Records  of  the  Past,  ed.  Dr.  Burch.  The  author  is  unknown,  but 
the  poem  is  known  by  the  name  of  a  scribe  who  once  copied  the  pro- 
ductiOQ. 


76  THt  wori,d's  progress. 

Every  chariot  carried  three  bold  warriors. 
All  his  foes,  and  all  allied  like  brothers. 

"  'Not  a  prince  is  with  me,  not  a  captain, 
Not  an  archer,  none  to  guide  my  horses  I 
Fled  the  riders  !  fled  my  troops  and  horse — 
By  my  side  not  one  is  now  left  standing.' 
'  Great  father  Amon,  I  have  known  thee  well, 
And  can  the  father  thus  forget  his  son  ? 
Have  I  in  anj  deed  forgotten  Thee  ? 
Have  I  done  aught  without  Thy  high  behest, 
Or  moved  or  staid  against  Thy  sovereign  will  ? 
Great  am  I — mighty  are  the  Egyptian  kings — 
But  in  the  sight  of  Thy  commanding  might. 
Small  as  the  chieftain  of  a  wandering  tribe. 
Immortal  Lord,  crush  Thou  this  unclean  people  ; 
Break  Thou  their  necks,  annihilate  the  heathen. 
And  I — have  I  not  brought  Thee  many  victims. 
And  filled  Thy  temple  with  the  captive  folk  ? 
And  for  Thy  presence  built  a  dwelling  place 
That  shall  endure  for  countless  years  to  come  ? 
Thy  garners  overflow  with  gifts  from  me. 

"  T  offer  Thee  the  world  to  swell  Thy  glory. 
And  thirty  thousand  mighty  steers  have  shed 
Their  smoking  blood  on  fragrant  cedar  piles. 
Tall  gateways,  flag-decked  masts,  I  raised  to  Thee, 
And  obelisks  from  Abu  I  have  brought, 
And  built  Thee  temples  of  eternal  stone. 
For  Thee  my  ships  have  brought  across  the  sea 
The  tribute  of  the  nations.    This  I  did — 
When  were  such  things  done  in  former  time  ? 
For  dark  the  fate  of  him  who  would  rebel 
Against  Thee  ;  though  Thy  sway  is  just  and  mild. 
My  father,  Amon — as  an  earthly  son 
His  earthly  father — so  I  call  on  Thee. 
Look  down  from  heaven  on  me,  beset  by  foes. 
By  heathen  foes,  the  folk  that  know  Thee  not. 
The  nations  have  combined  agfainst  Thy  son  ; 
I  stand  alone — ^alone,  and  no  man  with  me. 


THE   STORY   OF    EGYPT.  77 

My  foot  and  horse  are  fled,  I  called  aloud 

And  no  one  heard — in  vain  I  called  to  them. 

And  yet  I  say  :  the  sheltering  care  of  Amon 

Is  better  succor  than  a  million  men, 

Or  than  ten  thousand  knights,  or  than  a  thousand 

Brothers  and  sons  though  gathered  into  one. 

And  yet  I  say  :  the  bulwarks  raised  by  men 

However  strong,  compared  to  Thy  great  works 

Are  but  vain  shadows,  and  no  human  aid 

Avails  against  the  foe — but  thy  strong  hand. 

The  counsel  of  Thy  lips  shall  guide  my  way; 

I  have  obeyed  whenever  Thou  hast  ruled  ; 

I  call  on  Thee — and,  with  my  fame.  Thy  glory  ♦ 

Shall  fill  the  world,  from  farthest  east  to  west.' 

"  Yea,  his  cry  rang  forth  even  far  as  Hermonthis, 
And  Amon  himself  appeared  at  his  call  ;  and  gave  him 
His  hand  and  shouted  in  triumph,  saying  to  the  pharaoh 
'  Help  is  at  hand,  O  Rameses.    I  will  uphold  thee — 
I  thy  father  am  he  who  now  is  thy  succor. 
Bearing  thee  in  my  hands.     For  stronger  and  readier 
I  than  a  hundred  thousand  mortal  retainers  ; 
I  am  the  Lord  of  victory  loving  valor. 
I  rejoice  in  the  brave  and  give  them  good  counsel. 
And  he  whom  I  counsel  certainly  shall  not  miscarry.* 

"  Then  like  Menth,  with  his  right  he  scattered  the  arrows, 
And  with  his  left  he  swung  his  deadly  weapon. 
Felling  the  foe — as  his  foes  are  felled  by  Baal. 
The  chariots  were  broken  and  the  drivers  scattered, 
Then  was  the  foe  overthrown  before  his  horses. 
None  found  a  hand  to  fight  ;  they  could  not  shoot, 
Nor  dared  they  hurl  the  spear,  but  fled  at  his  coming — 
Headlong  into  the  river." 

Having  quelled  the  disturbances  incident  to  his  accession — 
for  a  change  of  rulers  was  generally  the  occasion  for  tribes 
held  in  tribute  to  seek  their  freedom — Ramses  was  free  to 
devote  the  remainder  of  his  reign,  some  forty  years,  to  internal 
improvements.      New    cities,  embankments,  fortresses,  statues, 


78  THE   WORLDS   PROGRESS. 

obelisks  and  temples  absorbed  his  untiring  interest.  He  seems 
to  have  been  especially  fond  of  grotto  temples, — ^those  hewn 
out  of  rocky  hills  or  mountain  sides.  Most  beautiful  of  these 
was  the  temple  of  Abu  Simbel,  guarded  by  four  famous 
statues  of  this  king.  They  stand  today  much  as  they  stood 
three  thousand  years  ago.  One  who  has  gazed  upon  the  UU' 
altering  expression  of  these  sentinels  says  of  them  :  "  The 
artists  who  wrought  the  statues  were  .  .  .  daunted  by 
no  difficulties  of  scale.  Giants  themselves,  they  summoned  these 
giants  from  out  the  solid  rock  and  endowed  them  with  super- 
human strength  and  beauty.  They  sought  no  quarried  blocks 
of  syenite  or  granite  for  their  work.  They  fashioned  no  models 
of  clay.  They  took  a  mountain  and  fell  upon  it  like  Titans 
and  hollowed  and  carved  it  as  though  it  were  a  cherry  stone  ; 
and  left  it  for  the  feebler  men  of  after  ages  to  marvel  at  for- 
ever. One  great  hall  and  fifteen  spacious  chambers  they  hewed 
out  from  the  heart  of  it,  then  smoothed  the  rugged  precipice 
toward  the  river,  and  cut  four  huge  statues  with  their  faces  to 
the  sunrise,  two  to  the  right  and  two  to  the  left  of  the  door- 
way, there  to  keep  watch  to  the  end  of  time. 

"  These  tremendous  warders  sit  sixty-six  feet  high,  without 
the  platform  under  their  feet.  They  measure  across  the  chest 
twenty-five  feet  and  four  inches.  ...  If  they  stood  up, 
they  would  tower  to  a  height  of  at  least  eighty-three  feet, 
from  the  soles  of  their  feet  to  the  tops  of  their  enormous 
double-crowns.'" 

To  estimate  the  cost  of  all  those  tremendous  undertakings 
in  buman  life  would  be  impossible.  It  is  believed  by  some  that 
Ramses  II.  was  the  pharaoh  of  the  oppression  of  the  Hebrews. 
However,  during  his  administration  they  were  well  fed  and 
while  their  tasks  were  hard,  they  were  not  harder  than  those 
of  other  workmen  similarly  employed.  It  was  left  for  his  son 
and  successor  to  make  their  lot  so  grievous  that  a  deliverer 
was  raised  up  to  lead  them  out  of  bondage. 

Regard  for  human  life,  compassion  for  the  lowly,  and  the 
spirit  of  humanity  were  qualities  almost  unknown  in  antiquity. 
The  importance  of  the  individual  has  only  in  modern  times 
come  to  be  acknowledged.  At  the  period  of  which  we  are 
studying,  there  was  no  restraint  upon  the  will  of  the  sovereign. 
» Edwards :  A  Thousand  Miles  Up  the  Nile,  262 


THE    STORY    OF    EGYPT.  79 

To  satisfy  his  ambition  and  to  gratify  his  pride,  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  slaves,  captives,  and  impressed  citizens  were  con- 
tinually sacrificed.  Some  were  driven  to  the  mines  :  others 
were  harnessed  to  huge  blocks  of  stone  to  draw  them  from 
the  quarry  mountain  to  the  building  site  ;  some  were  set  to 
work  in  the  brick  fields,  and  over  all  were  placed  overseers 
to  goad  the  workers  on,  giving  little  rest  or  respite. 

Regarding  the  Hebrews,  it  must  be  remembered  that  before 
the  Nineteenth  dynasty,  they  prospered  in  the  land  of  Egypt. 
A  new  king  who  "  knew  not  Joseph  "  looked  with  disfavor 
upon  these  foreign  people  waxing  strong  w'ithin  his  borders. 
Feeling  that  they  might  become  a  menace  to  the  country,  he 
determined  to  exterminate  them  by  dint  of  excessive  work. 
One  of  the  "  store-cities  "  built  by  them  under  these  circum- 
stances has  been  unearthed.  It  was  surrounded  by  a  wall 
thirty  feet  thick,  which  enclosed  about  twelve  acres.  Besides 
a  temple,  the  enclosure  contained  subterranean  cellars  built  of 
sun-dried  brick.  The  bricks  themselves  confirm  the  biblical 
version  of  the  story.  While  some  are  mixed  with  straw,  as 
was  customary,  others  were  mixed  with  leaves  and  reeds — 
indicating  that  straw  was  no  longer  supplied.  Still  others 
were  made  simply  of  sun-dried  mud. 

Ramses  11.  so  covered  the  land  with  his  works  and  monu- 
ments of  his  greatness,  that  his  personality  has  stamped  itself 
everywhere. 

It  caught  the  attention  of  early  writers  and  has  ever  since 
impressed  itself  upon  the  traveller,  so  that  this  king  has  been 
exalted  to  a  prominent  place  in  Egyptian  history.  Best  known 
of  Egypt's  kings,  for  that  reason,  possibly,  he  has  been  most 
popular. 

At  length  Merneptah  ruled  in  his  father's  stead.  Eew 
qualities  did  he  possess  to  awaken  admiration.  When  his  armies 
were  forced  to  face  an  invasion  of  African  tribes,  reinforced  by 
mercenary  troops,  he  remained  in  camp  while  his  soldiers  won 
victory  for  him.  The  god  Ptah,  so  he  explained,  had  com- 
manded him  to  stay  inside.  This  did  not  deter  him  from 
taking  full  credit  for  the  successes.  Upon  his  monuments  were 
inscribed  records  similar  to  this :  "These  people  were  meditat- 
ing to  do  evil  to  Egypt.  They  w^ere  as  grasshoppers.  Lo,  I 
vanquished  them ;  I  slaughtered  them,  making  a  spoil  of  their 
country." 


8o  THE  world's  progress. 

It  is  supposed  that  at  this  time  Moses  came  to  the  relief  of 
Israel,  and  asked  permission  for  his  people  to  withdraw  a  few- 
days  into  the  desert  to  ofifer  sacrifices  to  their  God.  This  was 
the  cccasi(n  for  the  king  both  to  deny  the  request  and  tc 
double  the  tasks  meted  out  to  the  brickmakers  by  withholding 
straw  and  requiring  the  same  amount  of  work  to  be  accom- 
plished as  before.  Then,  according  to  the  Hebrew  version, 
grievous  plagues  were  sent  upon  Egypt,  and  only  when  the 
king's  son,  with  the  other  first  born,  was  stricken  in  the  night, 
did  the  monarch  concede  to  the  entreaties  of  his  own  people 
and  bid  the  Hebrews  depart  from  his  land.  The  story  is  fa- 
miliar to  all — how  when  he  came  to  think  of  the  six  hundred 
thousand  valued  bonds-people  of  which  he  was  now  bereft,  he 
dispatched  the  flower  of  Egyptian  charioteers  to  prevent  the 
Hebrews  crossing  the  Red  Sea  and  bring  them  back  to  do  his 
bidding.  To  these  despairing  people  to  whom  light  seemed 
about  to  dawn,  the  fact  that  they  were  able  to  cross  over 
while  the  Egyptian  horses  were  ensnared  and  drowned, 
seemed  a  miracle  enacted  for  their  deliverance.  It  has  since 
been  noted  that  similar  tidal  action  at  this  point  has  sometimes 
repeated  itself.  To  the  Hebrews,  believing  firmly  in  the  in- 
spired mission  of  Moses,  it  was  regarded  later  as  an  example 
of  how  for  the  dutiful  "  all  things  work  together  for  good." 

Twentieth  Dynasty.^ 

Ramses  III.  was  the  first  important  ruler  of  the  Twentieth 
dynasty.  He  and  his  immediate  successors  were  able  to  hold 
intact  the  vast  empire  won  by  earlier  kings.  We  hear  no  more 
of  aggressive  wars  for  conquest.  However,  the  time  had  come 
when  Egypt  did  well  when  she  maintained  such  territories  as 
belonged  to  her. 

Men  of  Crete,  other  islanders  and  sea-faring  people,  made 
common  cause  against  the  Asiatic  shore  early  in  this  reign. 
Ramses  watched  their  progress  until  they  attacked  the  Egyp- 
tian province  of  Palestine.  Not  willing  to  lose  this,  the  pharaoh 
marched  against  the  plundering  bands  and  utterly  routed  them, 
taking  many  captives.  Three  other  campaigns  were  directed 
by  this  king,  but  they  were  carried  on  to  defend  Egyptian  bor- 
ders and  hold  together  tributary  provinces. 

Like  his  father,  Ramses  III.  was  a  builder.  Like  him,  too, 
*  1200-1090  B.  c 


THE   STORY   OF   EGYPT.  8l 

he  appropriated  earlier  temples  and  monuments  for  his  own 
fame  and  glory.  He  built  a  fleet  on  the  Red  Sea,  continued  the 
profitable  commercial  intercourse  with  Punt,  and  caused  a  large 
reservoir  to  be  constructed  in  Palestine.  Another  thing  he  did, 
which  all  histories  have  been  careful  to  chronicle:  he  ordered 
trees  and  shrubs  to  be  systematically  planted  throughout  the 
realm.  In  a  land  where  for  months  together  the  sun  pours  its 
hot  rays  down  on  a  defenseless  people,  he  tried  to  bring  rest 
and  cooling  shade  where  both  were  sorely  needed. 

We  have  often  noted  the  growing  power  of  the  priesthood 
in  Egypt,  and  have  seen  that  a  large  amount  of  the  booty  and 
tribute  which  flowed  into  the  country  from  Asia  found  its  way 
to  the  temples.  An  inventory  of  the  resources  of  the  temples 
during  this  reign  has  come  down  to  us  in  a  statement  prepared 
by  Ramses  III.,  known  now  as  the  Papyrus  Harris.  From 
this  it  appears  that  the  temples  owned  107,000  slaves — or  2 
per  cent  of  the  entire  population ;  they  possessed  750,000  acres, 
or  over  15  per  cent  of  all  the  arable  land  in  the  valley.  Gome 
500,000  head  of  cattle,  over  80  vessels,  53  workshops  and  ship- 
yards, brought  an  annual  income;  and  169  towns  in  Egypt 
Kush  and  Syria  were  theirs.  All  this  property  in  a  land  of  less 
than  10,000  square  miles  and  possibly  6,000,000  people,  was 
exempt  from  taxation. 

The  lion's  share  of  all  this  wealth  fell  to  the  temples  sacred 
to  Amon.  The  priests  of  Amon  had  charge  of  it,  and  as  time 
went  on,  they  came  to  be  regarded  as  superior  to  other  priestly 
orders  and  their  High  Priest  became  the  head  of  all  priest- 
hoods in  the  realm.  Of  all  the  temple  estates,  Amon  owned 
two-thirds.  In  slaves,  this  god  owned  seven  times  as  many  as 
any  other;  of  the  cattle,  more  than  four-fifths;  of  the  ships,  all 
but  five;  of  the  workshops,  forty-six  of  the  fifty-three  were 
his.  Regarding  Amon's  coffers,  Ramses  had  inscribed :  "  I 
have  filled  its  treasury  with  the  products  of  the  land  of  Egypt  : 
gold,  silver,  every  costly  stone  by  the  hundred  thousand.  Its 
granary  was  overflowing  with  barley  and  wheat ;  its  lands,  its 
herds,  their  multitudes  were  like  the  sands  of  the  shore.  I  taxed 
for  it  the  Southland  as  well  as  the  Northland ;  Nubia  and  Syria 
came  to  it,  bearing  their  impost."' 

» Breasted:  History  of  Egypt,  493;  trans. 


82  THE   world's   PROGREJS. 

In  showering  all  these  princely  gifts  upon  Amon,  Ramses 
was  but  following  the  example  set  by  his  forefathers.  The 
kings  themselves  held  the  priests  somewhat  in  fear,  believing 
that  they  had  influence  with  the  gods  and  could  indirectly  in- 
fluence not  only  their  earthly  prosperity  but  their  future  wel- 
fare. 

While  this  lavish  wealth  overflowed  the  coffers  of  the 
temples,  we  find  the  workmen  in  the  service  of  the  government, 
laboring  in  the  City  of  the  Dead — the  Necropolis — having  to 
resort  to  strikes,  or  in  older  phraseology,  "  having  to  lie  at 
home,"  because  their  monthly  rations  were  not  forthcoming. 
The  revenue  of  the  government  had,  apparently,  become  the 
spoils  for  corrupt  officials  who  sought  to  increase  their  personal 
incomes  at  the  expense  of  the  public  treisury.  Repeatedly 
starving  laborers  left  their  work  and  started  with  their  families 
to  leave  Thebes,  whereupon  part  of  their  rations  would  be 
given  them  and  they  would  be  urged  to  cont-'nue  at  their  tasks  ! 
Nor  was  this  all.  Records  have  come  down  to  us  of  bands  oi 
robbers  who  made  a  profession  of  rifling  tombs  of  the  dead. 
Worse  still,  cases  for  trial  were  frequently  dismissed  because 
officials  themselves  and  priests  of  lesser  position  were  sharing 
in  the  booty!  Some  of  the  Ramessides  removed  their  an- 
cestors from  the  original  tombs  and  had  all  placed  in  a  shaft 
where  guards  could  keep  watch  over  them.  It  was  next  to 
impossible  to  protect  <^he  wide-reaching  City  of  tlie  Dead,  but  it 
was  worse  than  useless  to  attempt  such  a  thing  when  those  sup- 
posed to  lend  protetticn  were  themselves  participating  in  the 
robberies. 

After  the  death  of  Ramses  III.,  his  descendants  to  the 
number  of  ten  succeeded  him.  Then  the  High  Priest  of  Amon 
snatched  the  power  from  Ramses  XIIL,  taking  the  title  of 
king  as  well  as  the  authority  which  he  already  held.  For  some 
time  the  kings  had  been  practically  subservient  to  him.  For 
almost  a  hunderd  and  fifty  years  priests  ruled  in  Egypt.*  Under 
priestly  rule  the  government  was  quite  as  corrupt  as  it  had  been 
previously.  Discontent  on  the  part  of  the  workmen,  bold  rob- 
beries of  tombs,  were  the  order  of  the  day.  First  Libyan,  then 
Ethiopian  chiefs  gained  possession  of  the  throne.  The  country 
fell  apart ;  the  days  of  Egypt's  glory  were  gone. 

From  this  time  forward  her  political  power  was  at  an  end. 

^     *  Twenty-first  Dynasty,  1090-945  b.  c 


THE   STORY  0"^  EGYPT.  83 

To  be  sure,  Ethiopian  kings  took  on  Egyptian  civilization — as 
a  matter  of  fact,  their  country  had  long  been  Egyptianized. 
They  tried  to  rule  as  pharaohs  before  them  had  done,  worship- 
ping Egyptian  gods  and  keeping  temples  in  repair.  To  the 
average  citizen,  life  was  no  doubt  much  as  it  had  been  in  former 
periods.  But  the  old  ideas  were  steadily  falling  away.  The 
Assyrians  invaded  the  country,  and  later,  the  Persians  under 
Cambyses  conquered  it.  Now  and  then  a  native  prince  would 
temporarily  get  control  and  repulse  the  Libyans  and  Ethio- 
pians on  the  west  and  Asiatic  peoples  on  the  east.  Such  re- 
actions and  returns  to  the  old  order  were  short-lived,  and  like 
the  sudden  glow  of  dying  embers,  bespoke  an  approaching  end. 

Foreign  people  and  foreign  influences  pushed  into  the  val- 
ley. Especially  did  they  come  from  Greece.  We  have  seen 
that  rapid  change  and  quick  assimilation  were  alien  to  the 
nature  of  the  Egyptian.  While  the  Greeks  gained  much  by 
this  contact,  their  coming  served  but  to  make  briefer  the  re- 
maining years  of  Egyptian  life.  Greek  learning  was  taught 
and  Greek  religion  spread  into  the  valley.  Finally  with  the 
conquest  of  Alexander  in  331  b.  c,  the  prevailing  element  in 
the  land  became  Greek  and  so  remained  until  Rome  extended 
her  sway  over  all  the  ancient  world. 

When  we  think  that  each  succeeding  invasion  was  the  oc- 
casion for  destruction  ;  when  plunder  and  fire  vied  with  each 
other  in  despoiling  the  conquered  land  ;  when  later  the  few 
temples  which  had  withstood  these  experiences  were  robbed  of 
their  contents,  and  obelisks,  monuments  and  statues  were  scat- 
tered among  the  nations  of  the  earth,  to  satisfy  personal  grati- 
fication, we  can  no  longer  wonder  that  so  little  remains  of 
that  Egypt  we  have  been  studying. 

After  the  period  of  the  priest-kings,  the  history  of  Egypt 
belongs  to  the  history  of  Assyria,  Babylonia,  Greece  and 
Rome,  and  no  longer  concerns  us  in  our  attempt  to  become 
acquainted  with  the  "  earliest  nations." 

We  feel  some  way  that  the  end  of  Egypt's  political  power 
should  have  been  more  splendid  than  it  was — more  worthy  of 
her  former  dignity  and  strength,  and  almost  regret  that  the 
masses  of  her  citizens  had  not  met  their  final  repulse  in  some 
desperate  rally  to  drive  invaders  from  their  borders  But  the 
end  had  been  long  drawn  out    Generations  of  alien  rule  had 


84 


Thu  wori,d*s  progress. 


accustomed  the  people  to  accept  this  as  a  natural  condition. 
Rawlinson  puts  it  well :  "  As  it  was,  Egypt  sank  ingloriously 
at  the  last — her  art,  her  literature,  her  national  spirit  decayed 
and  almost  extinct — ^paying,  by  her  early  disappearance  from 
among  the  nations  of  the  earth,  the  penalty  of  her  extraordi- 
narily precocious  greatness."* 

Such  being  a  brief  survey  of  her  political  achievements,  we 
turn  now  to  the  life  and  customs  of  her  people. 

*  Rawlinson :  Ancient  Egypt,  402. 


SOCIAL  LIFE  IN  EGYPT 


CHAPTER  IX. 
Introductory, 

^i  Mj/\  he  social  life  of  ancient  peoples  has  for  many 
^^^t  ^f  greater  interest  than  their  political  development. 
j^M';^\|  Before  the  days  of  Greece  self-government  was 
^^iS^xi  unknown,  and  the  king  embodied  in  himself  the 
■  government.  Upon  his  personal  character,  his  foresight 
and  statesmanship,  the  weal  of  the  country  depended. 
For  this  reason,  as  we  trace  the  political  fortunes  of  one  nation 
and  another  in  antiquity,  we  find  that  the  story  consists  largely 
of  the  doings  of  the  monarch.  When  kings  were  strong  and 
ambitious,  wide  activities  characterized  their  reigns;  when 
they  were  weak,  unprincipled  and  selfish,  their  periods  were 
less  brilliant.  In  any  case,  one  feels  how  powerless  were  the 
masses — how  utterly  at  the  will  of  the  sovereign.  To  be  sure, 
even  in  antiquity,  it  ill  behooved  a  ruler  to  disregard  his 
subjects  altogether,  but  conditions  had  to  be  extreme  before 
they  would  assert  themselves  against  him. 

Apart  from  a  nation's  political  life,  however,  there  is  al- 
ways a  greater  life — the  life  of  the  people,  regardless  of  their 
political  relations.  One  never  exists  without  the  other,  and 
one  is  influenced  by  the  other;  but  the  social  body  includes 
each  and  every  one,  whether  of  low  or  high  estate,  while  the 
political  body  may  include  but  a  portion  of  a  nation's  people, 
^gain,  in  spite  of  bad  government,  the  selfishness  of  kings, 
even  in  spite  of  invasions  of  the  enemy,  the  daily  life  of  the 
great  majority  of  early  people  varied  but  little.  They  pro- 
cured food  and  clothing,  cared  for  their  children,  worked  at 
their  various  callings,  as  civilized  beings  have  done  in  all  ages. 
Certain  peculiar  customs  are  to  be  found  among  each  nation, 
and  it  is  these  very  peculiarities,  probably,  that  relieves  what 
might  otherwise  become  a  monotonous  repetition. 

85 


86  THS  world's  progress. 

We  cannot  too  often  recall  that  the  recorded  history  of 
ancient  Egypt  extended  over  three  thousand  years.  The  man- 
ner of  life,  dress,  customs,  etc.,  changed  considerably  in  that 
long  period,  and  just  as  we  divide  the  social  life  of  England 
into  various  epochs — such  as  social  conditions  under  Saxon 
kings,  during  Norman  rule,  in  Elizabethan  years,  etc. — so,  for 
any  protracted  investigation  of  social  Egypt,  we  would  find  it 
necessary  to  make  several  divisions  of  the  subject. 

The  greatest  source  of  knowledge  for  Egyptian  social  life 
is  of  course  the  tombs.  From  their  contents  and  from  the 
pictures  that  adorn  their  walls  much  has  been  ascertained.  To 
be  sure,  many  details  are  yet  lacking,  and  Egyptologists  seek 
still  for  answers  to  unanswered  queries.  Many  recovered  re- 
mains have  not  yet  been  classified,  and  rolls  of  papyri  lie 
still  untranslated,  so  undoubtedly  the  future  will  make  many 
contributions  to  what  has  already  been  worked  out.  Never- 
theless, even  now  many  aspects  of  the  life  of  the  old  Nile- 
dwellers  have  been  reconstructed  with  considerable  degree  of 
certainty.  These  recent  conclusions  have  proven  the  ancient 
Egyptian  to  have  been  quite  a  different  creature  from  what 
he  was  long  supposed.  Until  late  years  it  was  believed  that  he 
was  a  solemn,  serious  individual,  overwhelmed  with  an  ever- 
present  thought  of  death,  for  which  many  of  his  acts  in  life 
prepared  him.  This  idea  was  mistaken.  The  religion  of 
the  ancient  Egyptian  led  him  into  many  curious  ways,  beyond 
a  doubt,  but  he  was  withal  a  contented  person  who  found 
some  humor  in  life.  The  happenings  of  his  earthly  career  were 
as  potent  to  him  as  ours  are  to  us.  The  study  of  history 
should  do  one  thing  for  us  at  least :  it  should  teach  us  to  find 
strong  similarities  between  the  people  we  see  around  us  today 
and  those  of  whom  we  read  and  study  in  antiquity.  The 
normal  human  being  has  in  all  ages  been  governed  by  certain 
controlling  interests,  passions  and  desires,  has  pulsed  with  the 
vigor  of  life  and  its  manifold  interests — as  we  do  now  and  as 
the  Egyptian  did,  five  thousand  years  ago. 

Houses. 

In  strong  contrast  with  the  solid,  substantial  tombs  and 
temples  were  the  private  dwellings.  No  need  was  felt  to  make 
these  enduring.    Rather,  they  were  constructed  in  such  a  way 


SOCIAI,  UFE  IN    EGYPT.  87 

as  to  allow  free  circulation  of  air  and  to  preserve  coolness. 
The  walls  were  thin,  being  made  of  stucco,  mud  brick,  or  wood. 
The  outside  of  the  house  was  decorated  in  gay  colors,  and 
was  hung  with  brightly  tinted  carpets  or  mattings.  Similar 
coverings  adorned  the  inner  walls. 

Many  pictures  of  ancient  Egyptian  houses  have  been  found 
in  tomb  pictures.  It  is  apparent  that  the  well-to-do  citizen  de- 
sired seclusion  for  his  home.  An  outer  wall  usually  surrounded 
the  house  and  out  buildings.'  The  general  plan  of  houses  for 
people  of  comfortable  means  was  this:  a  gateway,  often  of 
cedar,  gave  entrance  into  a  court.  The  gate  was  kept  locked, 
save  when  the  keeper  opened  it  to  allow  visitors  to  enter  or 
depart.  Crossing  the  court — of  varying  size — one  entered  a 
vestibule,  guarded  by  a  porter.  This  vestibule  led  directly  to 
the  dining  hall,  the  largest  and  most  important  room  in  the 
house.  Sleeping  apartments  for  the  family  were  reached 
through  a  second  vestibule  and  the  kitchen,  store-rooms,  and 
servants'  apartments,  though  joined  on  one  side,  were  sep- 
arated from  the  main  portion  of  the  house  by  an  inner  court. 
Often  the  houses  were  two  stories  in  height.  Generally  a 
stairway  led  to  the  roof,  which  was  used  for  many  purposes 
when  the  heat  of  the  sun  was  passed. 

The  wealthy  required  many  buildings.  One  would  be  set 
aside  for  the  women ;  another  contained  reception  halls  for 
distinguished  guests;  a  third,  store-rooms  and  supplies;  and 
besides  these  there  might  be  several  stables  and  separate 
quarters  for  slaves  and  servants.  Service  was  cheap  and 
slaves  plentiful,  so  people  of  even  moderate  means  had  nu- 
merous assistants. 

The  elaborate  estate  of  the  wealthy  was  exceeded  by  the 
magnificence  of  the  pharaoh,  who  frequently  constructed  his 
own  city,  as  it  was  called.  Here  the  king  might  have  plenty 
of  land  and  surround  himself  with  as  many  buildings  as  he 
chose,  enclosing  the  whole  by  a  wall.  In  bitter  contrast  to 
this  royal  splendor  was  the  squalor  of  the  poor,  whose  shelter 
was  a  tiny  hut  built  of  sun-dried  mud. 

For  those  whose  incomes  permitted,  the  garden  was  the 
favorite  spot.  This  we  would  naturally  expect  in  a  country 
where  out  of  door  life  is  interrupted  only  in  the  middle  of  the 
day  by  the  intense  heat.    In  the  garden,  trees,  shrubs,  and  many 


88  THE  world's  progress. 

kinds  of  flowers  were  planted.  Its  size  depended  upon  the 
prosperity  of  the  owner.  Sometimes  the  court,  however  tiny, 
provided  all  the  garden  plot  he  possessed  ;  sometimes  extensive 
grounds  included  flower-gardens,  date  orchards,  and  sycamore 
groves,  while  summer  houses  and  artificial  ponds  were  scat- 
tered over  wide  areas.  Small  wonder  was  it  that  the  "  pious 
Egyptian  hoped  his  soul,  as  its  supreme  felicity,  would  re- 
turn to  sit  under  the  trees  he  had  planted,  by  the  side  of  the 
ponds  he  had  dug,  there  to  enjoy  the  refreshing  breeze  from 
the  north." 

The  Egyptians  were  passionately  fond  of  flowers.  They 
grew  them  in  their  gardens,  filled  their  houses  with  the  blos- 
soms, used  them  lavishly  at  their  feasts  and  carved  them  on 
their  tombs  and  in  their  temples.  They  sought  ever  to  increase 
their  varieties,  originally  few,  and  we  have  seen  that  the 
kings  often  prized  new  specimens  found  in  other  lands  above 
their  tribute. 

"  Everywhere  on  the  monuments  we  meet  with  flowers ; 
bouquets  of  flowers  are  presented  to  the  gods;  the  coffins  are 
covered  with  wreaths  of  flowers;  flowers  form  the  decoration 
of  the  houses,  and  all  the  capitals  of  the  pillars  are  painted  in 
imitation  of  their  colored  petals.  The  Egyptian  also  loved 
shady  trees.  He  not  only  prayed  that  the  *  Nile  should  bestow 
every  flowering  plant  in  their  season '  upon  his  departed  soul, 
but  also  that  his  soul  might  sit  *  on  the  boughs  of  the  trees 
that  he  had  planted,  and  enjoy  the  cool  air  in  the  shade  of  his 
sycamore.  '  The  arable  fields,  the  shadeless  woods  of  palms, 
the  bare  mud  soil,  scarcely  provided  the  scenery  which  he 
most  admired ;  he  therefore  tried  to  supply  the  want  by  land- 
scape gardening.  In  the  oldest  periods  there  were  parks 
and  gardens ;  and  the  gentleman  of  ancient  Egypt  talked  with 
pride  of  his  shady  trees,  his  sweet-smelling  plants,  and  his 
cool  tanks.  All  the  sentiments  with  which  we  regard  the 
woods  and  meadows  of  nature,  the  Egyptian  felt  towards  his 
well  kept  garden;  to  him  it  was  the  dwelling  place  of  love, 
and  his  trees  were  the  confidants  of  lovers. 

"  On  the  *  festival  day  of  the  garden,'  that  is  on  the  day 
when  the  garden  was  in  full  bloom,  the  wild  fig-tree  calls  to 
the  maiden  to  come  into  the  shade  of  the  fig  leaves  as  a 
trysting  place. :      . 


SOCIAL  LIFE  IN  EGYPT.  89 

"  The  little  Sycamore, 
Which  she  planted  with  her  hand 
She  begins  to  speak, 

And  her  (words  are  as)  drops  of  honey. 
She  is  charming,  her  bower  is  green. 
Greener  than  the   (papyrus). 
She  is  laden  with  fruit, 
Redder  than  the  ruby, 
The  color  of  her  leaves  is  as  glass. 
Her  stem  is  as  the  color  of  the  opal.     .    .    » 
It  is  cool  in  her  shadow. 
She  sends  her  letter  by  a  little  maiden. 
The  daughter  of  her  chief  gardener 
She  makes  her  haste  to  her  beloved  : 
Come  and  linger  in  the  (garden)     .     .     . 
The  servants  who  belong  to  thee 
Come  with  the  dinner  things  ; 
They  are  bringing  beer  of  every  (kind). 
With  all  manner  of  bread, 
Flowers  of  yesterday  and  of  today. 
And  all  kinds  of  refreshing  fruit. 
Come,  spend  this  festival  day 
And  tomorrow  and  the  day  after  tomorrow 
Sitting  in  my  shadow. 
Thy  companion  sits  at  thy  right  hand. 
Thou  dost  make  him  drink, 
And  then  thou  dost  follow  what  he  says.     .     .    . 
I  am  of  a  silent  nature 
And  I  do  not  tell  what  I  see 
I  do  not  chatter."* 

Having  attractive  grounds  as  a  setting,  the  houses  of  the 
wealthy  Egyptians  were  also  attractive  indoors.  The  dining 
room  was  the  important  room  of  the  house.  Guests  generally 
sat  on  stools  when  dining.  When  ladies  gathered  for  a  banquet, 
they  frequently  sat  on  costly  rugs  spread  upon  the  floor. 
Servants  or  slaves  served  those  assembled  from  a  large  table 
loaded  with  tempting  viands. 

The  Egyptian  seems  no  longer  far  away  and  mummy-like 

>  Erman  :  Life  in  Ancient  Egypt,  193. 


go  THE  wori^d's  progress. 

when  we  learn  that  he  was  fond  of  good  things  to  eat.  Roast 
goose  was  a  favorite  dish;  bread  and  beer  were  constantly  in 
demand,  quite  as  they  are  in  Germany  today.  In  naming  over 
the  dishes  he  hoped  to  supply  his  departed,  in  a  tomb  we  may 
read :  five  kinds  of  birds,  sixteen  kinds  of  bread  and  cake,  six 
varieties  of  wine,  and  eleven  different  fruits.  The  bread, 
molded  into  fancy  shapes,  was  made  of  barley  and  wheat. 
Grapes  were  generally  grown,  and  fig  trees  too.  Tame 
monkeys  were  trained  to  go  into  the  high  branches  of  the  fig 
trees  and  throw  down  the  fruit. 

Many  specimens  of  ancient  household  furniture  have  been 
found  in  Egyptian  tombs,  such  as  chairs,  couches,  tables  and 
bedsteads.  In  the  sleeping  apartments,  high  couches  were 
reached  by  steps.  Wooden  headrests  took  the  place  of  pillows. 
These  were  used  in  order  that  the  wigs  and  elaborate  head 
dresses  might  not  be  disturbed  while  the  wearers  slept. 

The  student  who  would  make  an  exhaustive  study  of  the 
Egyptian  house  and  its  contents  must  go  to  the  museums  where 
discovered  articles  have  been  preserved,  or  at  least  to  the  de- 
tailed descriptions  of  these  given  by  Maspero  and  other 
Egyptologists.  We  could  not  well  leave  a  consideration  of  the 
subject  however,  without  giving  brief  attention  to  the  dwellings 
of  the  poor,  who  in  every  age  and  country  have  made  up  a 
large  part  of  the  population. 

The  fellah  of  today  lives  much  as  did  the  peasant  of  an- 
tiquity. His  dwelling  was  a  hut  built  of  mud  and  roofed 
with  palm  leaves.  While  the  poorest  had  but  one  room, 
those  who  were  more  industrious,  perhaps,  might  have  two  or 
three.  Once  or  twice  in  a  century,  rain  would  fall.  Then 
these  huts  would  dissolve  and  flow  away.  When  the  storm 
ceased,  all  the  family  would  set  to  work,  level  off  the  spot  and 
construct  a  new  dwelling  from  sun-dried  mud,  which  after 
being  exposed  to  the  heat  of  a  few  days,  would  be  as  good  as 
ever.  This  leveling  of  huts,  whether  caused  by  storms,  or 
because  it  was  easier  to  build  a  new  house  than  cleanse  the 
old  one,  has  elevated  the  land  in  many  parts  of  Egypt.  Fre- 
quently it  is  the  case  that  peasants  have  dwelt  so  long  on  the 
sites  of  buried  cities,  that  the  explorer  who  today  vvould  reach 
the  original  settlement  must  tunnel  down  through  many  layers 
of  sun-dried  mud,  once  the  dwellings  of  the  poor. 


sociai,  life  in  egypt.  9i 

Family  Life. 

It  is  frequently  said  that  the  test  of  a  nation's  civilization 
is  the  position  accorded  to  woman.  Applying  this  test  to  Egypt, 
her  civilization  would  rank  well  with  nations  of  modern  times 
as  well  as  with  those  contemporaneous  with  her.  From  the 
earliest  times  of  which  we  have  record,  Egyptian  women 
were  the  companions  and  trusted  counsellors  of  their  husbands. 
During  the  New  Empire  it  was  the  boast  of  one  of  the  Rames- 
sides  that  any  woman  might  go  alone  and  unveiled  as  far  in 
any  direction  as  she  wished,  confident  that  she  would  not  be 
accosted  nor  disturbed. 

Two  customs  prevailed  in  ancient  Egypt  that  are  contrary 
to  the  moral  standards  of  our  day:  one  was  the  practice  of  a 
brother  marrying  his  sister;  the  second,  a  husband  having 
more  than  one  wife.  Early  peoples  did  not  regard  these  prac- 
tices in  the  light  of  modern  opinion.  The  Hebrews,  for 
example,  frequently  took  two  or  more  wives,  and  the  same 
habit  obtained  among  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians.  Among 
pastoral  tribes  of  the  present  day  this  custom  survives.  In  all 
cases,  one  woman  was  regarded  as  the  legitimate  wife,  and  her 
children  were  heirs  to  their  father's  estate,  while  children  by 
his  other  wives  might  or  might  not  be  recognized  by  the 
father  as  his  heirs,  according  to  his  pleasure.  As  a  rule,  only 
the  well-to-do  Egyptian  could  afford  the  luxury  of  two  wives, 
so  that  polygamy  was  not  common  among  the  lower  classes. 
There  seems  to  have  been  little  friction  in  the  Egyptian  house- 
hold between  the  several  wives.  Stories  have  come  down  to 
us  of  women  who  cared  enough  for  other  wives  of  their 
husbands  to  name  children  for  them.  Certain  marks  of  honor 
were  the  right  of  the  first  wife  and  were  conceded  as  a  matter 
of  course. 

The  marriage  of  those  close  of  kin  was  quite  usual.  The 
word  sister  in  Egypt  came  to  be  used  interchangeably  for  wife 
or  sister.  In  this  land  it  appears  to  have  frequently  resulted 
that  a  boy  and  girl,  brought  up  in  the  same  family,  having 
similar  ideas  and  interests,  married  and  lived  happily  together 
in  their  married  life. 

Multifarious  were  the  duties  of  a  wife  of  the  middle  class. 
She  cared  for  the  family,  spun  and  wove,  sent  the  little  ones 
to  school  and  took  them  a  lunch  at  mid-day.    She  drew  water 


92  th^  world's  progress. 

at  the  nearest  pool,  ground  corn  into  meal  and  made  the  meal 
into  cakes;  she  drove  the  cattle  to  pasture  and  collected  the 
fuel.  What  did  not  this  mother  do?  It  is  little  wonder  that 
from  lack  of  care  and  nourishment,  large  numbers  of  children 
died  before  they  became  ten  years  of  age.  Those  who  lived 
were  indeed  the  survival  of  the  fittest,  and  aside  from  a  disease 
of  the  eye — brought  on  by  the  glaring  sand  and  burning  sun — 
they  were  generally  healthy  and  equal  to  any  hardship. 
Marrying  young,  women  were  often  grandmothers  at  thirty. 
Although  they  faded  early,  they  did  not  suffer  in  their  position 
in  the  family  on  that  account.  Great  respect  was  shown  them 
while  they  lived,  and  after  their  death  they  were  worshipped — 
for  the  Egyptian  always  worshipped  his  ancestors.  Believing 
that  the  soul  lived  on,  it  might  work  harm  for  the  surviving 
relatives  and  friends  unless  appeased  with  marked  considera- 
tion. This  desire  to  escape  possible  harm  by  satisfying  the 
departed  appears  to  have  been  the  strong  motive  inducing 
ancient  peoples  to  worship  the  dead. 

The  children  were  left  with  the  mother  until  almost  four 
years  of  age.  Dolls  and  other  toys  found  buried  in  the  tombs 
with  little  ones  show  that  they,  in  those  far  away  times,  were 
quite  like  children  who  have  lived  since.  When  four,  they  were 
sent  to  an  elementary  school.  If  at  ten  the  son  had  evinced 
any  special  ability  that  would  justify  educating  him,  he  was 
put  into  a  school  maintained  by  the  priests.  Here  he  was 
trained  for  a  scribe  unless  his  early  promise  was  borne  out 
by  rapid  progress,  in  which  case  he  was  educated  for  the 
priesthood.  If  by  the  age  of  ten  he  had  given  no  special 
evidence  of  ability,  he  was  taught  a  trade. 

The  old  idea  that  caste  was  strongly  marked  in  Egypt  is 
not  only  misleading  but  untrue.  Class  distinctions  were  closely 
drawn  in  Egypt,  as  they  are  today,  even  in  America.  The 
average  child  born  in  the  slums  of  a  city  seldom  comes  to 
importance.  The  son  of  a  day  laborer  rarely  marries  into  the 
wealthy  or  so-called  "old  families."  The  reason  for  this  is 
not  so  much  that  there  is  objection  in  America  to  the  humblest 
born  rising  to  any  height,  but  that  the  opportunities  for  progress 
to  one  born  into  such  surroundings  are  few.  It  was  somewhat 
similar  in  Egypt.  Chances  for  rapid  advance  were  by  no 
means  as  favorable  then  as  now,  but  nevertheless,  there  are 


Tourists  Scaling  the  Great  Pyramid. 


SOCIAL    LIFE    IN    EGYPT.  93 

many  cases  on  record  where  men  attained  high  official  position 
in  spite  of  great  social  disadvantages. 

The  affection  of  the  Egyptians  for  their  children  was  almost 
universal.  Large  families  were  desired,  even  by  those  in 
moderate  circumstances.  Indeed  it  was  necessary  that  families 
be  perpetuated,  for  thus  alone  would  family  tombs  be  kept  up 
and  respect  be  shown  those  who  had  departed.  Among  all 
people  who  worship  ancestors,  children  are  especially  desired 
and  to  be  bereft  of  them  is  the  greatest  hardship  and  affliction. 

In  spite  of  all  that  has  been  said  of  the  respect  paid  to 
women,  the  happy  domestic  relations  in  Egypt  and  the  affection 
for  children,  it  is  doubtful  whether  or  not  there  was  much 
home  life  as  we  today  understand  the  phrase.  The  importance 
of  the  individual  is  a  modern  conception.  The  will  of  the 
king  was  paramount  in  Egypt  and  all  citizens  were  first  of 
all  subservient  to  his  wishes.  Less  security,  less  freedom  in 
pursuing  one's  own  course  probably  resulted  in  brief  periods 
of  family  unity.  Surely  such  must  have  been  the  result  of 
early  marriages  which  took  children  from  their  parents  at  a 
tender  age. 

Dress. 

Suppose  for  a  moment  that  some  unforseen  catastrophe 
should  wipe  out  the  inhabitants  of  England,  and  future  gen- 
erations attempted  to  reconstruct  their  history,  from  the  age 
of  King  Arthur  and  his  knights  to  the  peaceful  days  of  Edward 
the  Seventh.  After  working  out  an  outline  of  their  political 
development,  suppose  it  should  be  asked,  But  how  did  these  peo- 
ple dress?  Think  of  the  variety  of  costumes  that  have  been 
popular  since  the  Round  Table  days !  Who  could  describe 
them  all  ?  The  task  would  be  disheartening  indeed.  And  yet, 
far  more  years  sped  over  Egypt  than  England  has  yet  known. 

Living  in  a  warm  country,  the  Egyptian  required  simpler 
•raiment  than  the  Englishman.  In  early  times  a  short,  scant 
skirt  was  worn  by  both  men  and  women — the  children  were 
generally  not  clothed  at  all.  This  skirt,  which  formed  the 
foundation  of  all  the  later,  more  elaborate  dress,  changed  in 
style  from  one  age  to  another.  Sometimes  it  was  scantier 
than  at  other  times  and  it  varied  in  length.  During  the  Sixth 
dynasty,  either  by  means  of  pressing,  or  by  some  device,  the 

1—8 


94  THiv  world's  progress. 

front  of  the  skirt  was  made  to  assume  a  stiff,  triangular  appear- 
ance. As  pictured  on  the  tombs,  it  looks  like  a  three-cornered 
apron.  In  the  Old  Empire,  the  great  lords  threw  a  panther 
skin  across  their  shoulders,  when,  as  Erman  expresses  it,  "  they 
wished  to  appear  in  full  dress." 

In  the  Middle  Empire  people  of  high  position  wore  two 
skirts,  the  under  one  short  and  of  heavy  linen ;  the  outer  skirt 
so  sheer  that  the  contour  of  the  body  was  quite  visible. 

By  the  Eighteenth  dynasty  it  had  become  customary  to 
clothe  the  upper  portion  of  the  body.  Even  now  the  arms 
were  left  free.  The  king  appeared  occasionally  hi  a  mantle 
and  the  nobles  also  donned  mantles  for  festival  days. 

Working  people  always  clothed  in  the  simplest  fashion.  All 
garments  were  frequently  discarded  in  the  field,  as  they  impeded 
rapid  movement.  The  supersensitive  modesty  of  our  day 
which  cries  out  against  a  low  bodice  or  lace  hose,  even  raises 
objection  at  undraped  marble  statues,  had  no  part  in  the  thought 
of  these  simple-hearted,  pure-minded  people ;  yet  they  showed 
a  fitting  sense  of  decorum  and  dignity. 

It  was  the  men  in  Egypt  who  delighted  in  finery  and  showy 
costumes,  while  the  dress  of  the  women  was  plainer  and  re- 
mained almost  wholly  unaltered  for  centuries  together.  Their 
usual  garment  during  the  later  periods  was  a  close  fitting 
gown  reaching  from  under  the  arms  to  the  ankles,  and  mistress 
and  maid  were  dressed  much  alike.  In  the  New  Empire  a  cloak 
was  added,  but  it  and  the  gown  beneath  were  of  sheerest  linen 
procurable.  As  time  went  on,  garments  of  both  men  and 
women  were  elaborately  embroidered. 

The  ancient  Egyptian  desired  to  preserve  absolute  cleanli- 
ness. Scenes  characteristic  of  washing  day  have  been  pictured 
on  many  a  tomb.  The  chief  washer  was  assisted  by  others 
who  beat  the  clothes,  wrung  them  out,  bleached  and  dried  them. 
It  was  the  desire  to  be  clean  which  led  these  people  to  shave 
their  heads  and  beards.  Wigs  of  curled  wool  and  others  of 
long  hair  are  constantly  seen  in  the  old  pictures,  although  it 
sometimes  appears  that  these  covered  heads  already  crowned 
by  a  natural  growth.  While  they  shaved  off  the  beard  as 
something  unclean,  the  Egyptians  still  shared  in  the  idea  com- 
mon to  oriental  peoples  ':hat  a  beard  gives  added  dignity, 
hence  the  king  and  men  of  rank  wore  artificial  beards  on  state 


SOCIAL   UFE  IN    EGYPT. 


95 


occasions.  Even  Queen  Hatshepsut  assumed  one  when  she 
wished  to  appear  regal. 

Sandals  and  foot  gear  were  not  popular  at  any  time,  al- 
though men  of  the  higher  classes  wore  them  when  they  walked 
abroad.  Men  and  women  alike  donned  necklaces  and  bracelets, 
while  women  wore  anklets  also.  Earrings  were  introduced  by 
foreigners  and  rings  seem  to  have  been  confined  to  seal  rings. 
Walking  sticks  were  carried  as  badges  of  honor  and  each  style 
of  stick  indicated  a  degree  of  social  rank. 

The  Egyptians  painted  their  faces,  rouged  their  lips,  black- 
ened their  eyes,  and  oiled  their  hair  and  bodies.  At  a  feast  a 
slave  would  bring  a  ball  soaked  in  oil  for  each  guest,  place 
it  on  his  head,  in  order  that  the  oil  might  gently  percolate 
through  the  hair  of  the  banqueter  during  the  meal.  The  dead 
were  provided  with  many  kinds  of  oil,  perfumes,  and  rouges 
for  use  of  the  double,  or  ka. 

Probably  many  allowed  their  hair  to  grow  long,  for  we 
find  physicians  taxed  to  their  utmost  to  supply  concoctions 
which  would  produce  heavy  growths  of  hair,  strengthen  it 
and  prevent  it  from  turning  grey.  All  these  remedies  are 
found  in  old  papyri : 

To  prevent  the  hair  turning  grey :  "  The  blood  of  a  black 
calf,  cooked  in  oil — a  salve." 

Or  this :  "  Two  parts  of  bloods,  horn  of  a  black  cow,  warm 
it  up  for  a  salve." 

When  the  hair  fell  out:  "Take  fat  of  the  lion,  of  the 
hippopotamus,  the  crocodile,  the  cat,  the  snake,  and  the  ibex." 

To  strengthen  the  hair :  "  Anoint  it  with  the  tooth  of  a 
donkey  crushed  in  honey." 

Or  try  this:  "  Boil  the  hoof  of  a  donkey  in  oil  together 
with  a  dog's  foot,  and  some  date  kernels." 


VIEW  OF   MANSION,  PROM   THE  TOMB  OF  ANNA, 
EIGHTEENTH  DYNASTY. 


96  TH^  WORU)'S  PROGRESS. 

CHAPTER  X. 
Sports  and  Recreations. 

The  pastimes  and  diversions  of  any  people  fall  easily  in 
two  divisions:  those  which  are  adapted  to  the  open  air,  and 
those  enjoyed  indoors.  The  popular  outdoor  sports  among 
the  Egyptians  were  hunting,  fishing  and  boating,  while  the 
banquet  with  its  attendant  dancing  and  music,  helped  them 
to  pass  those  hours  when  Amon,  god  of  the  sun,  concealed, 
reigned  over  all. 

The  wealthy  Egyptian  liked  to  take  his  wife  or  family  in 
his  light  boat  and  wander  at  will  among  the  reeds  and  marshy 
plants  abounding  in  the  little  streams  and  lakes  left  still  un- 
drained.  It  was  fine  sport  to  flit  in  and  out  among  the  tall 
papyrus,  rouse  a  flock  of  birds  and  bring  some  of  them  down 
with  the  boomerang.  Fishes  were  plentiful  in  the  streams, 
and  the  sportsman  chose  to  get  them  with  a  two-pointed  spear. 
If  he  became  expert,  he  could  spear  two  at  once — one  on  either 
point.  To  be  sure,  the  game  dealers,  requiring  large  numbers 
of  fish  and  fowl,  caught  both  in  a  net.  Only  the  noble  or  the 
well-to-do  had  time  to  indulge  in  hunting  and  fishing  for  mere 
diversion.  In  the  tomb  pictures,  gentlemen  are  shown  seated 
in  their  gardens,  on  costly  rugs,  it  may  be,  leisurely  spearing 
fish  in  their  own  artificial  ponds.  This  was  too  simple  a 
process  for  any  but  the  most  indolent,  and  did  not  appeal 
to  the  true  sportsman  who  loved  the  natural  streams. 

Great  was  the  attraction  of  these  marshy  lakes.  "  Much  of 
the  country  formerly  covered  by  marshes  and  tropical  forests 
was  already  arable  land.  At  the  same  time  old  river  beds  re- 
mained; stretches  of  marsh  and  half-stagnant  water,  over- 
grown as  of  old  with  papyrus  reeds,  offered  shelter  to  the 
hippopotamus,  the  crocodile  and  to  numberless  water-birds. 
This  was  the  happy  hunting  ground  of  the  great  lords  of  ancient 
Egypt,  the  oft-mentioned  *  backwaters,'  the  *  bird  tanks  of 
pleasure.'  They  played  the  same  part  in  Egyptian  life  as  the 
forest  in  German  folk  lore;  the  greatest  delight  perhaps  that 
an  Egyptian  knew  was  to  row  in  a  light  boat  between  the 


SOCIAL   LIFE   IN    EGYPT.  97 

beautiful  waving  tufts  of  the  papyrus  reeds,  to  pick  the  lotus 
flo\vers,  to  start  the  wild  birds  and  then  knock  them  over  with 
the  throw-stick,  to  spear  the  great  fish  of  the  Nile  and  even 
the  hippopotamus,  with  the  harpoon.  Pictures  of  all  periods 
exist  representing  these  expeditions,  and  we  have  but  to  glance 
at  them  in  order  to  realize  how  much  the  Egyptians  loved 
these  wild  districts,  and  how  much  poetry  they  found  in  them.'" 

Danger  mingled  with  sport  in  capturing  the  larger  game — 
the  hippopotamus  and  crocodile.  Pictures  of  crocodile  hunts 
have  not  been  found.  Probably  they  were  not  painted,  because 
in  certain  parts  of  Egypt  these  animals  were  held  sacred  to 
some  god,  and  even  those  who  did  not  share  this  belief  might 
not  have  cared  to  record  the  killing  of  them  in  the  tomb.  No 
such  feeling  existed  concerning  the  hippopotamus  and  he  who 
was  successful  in  securing  one  seldom  failed  to  have  the  hunt 
pictured  in  his  tomb.  You  will  remember  that  in  ancient  Egypt, 
each  person  built  his  own  tomb  during  his  life  time,  and  so 
decided  for  himself  for  what  he  was  to  be  remembered. 

The  deserts  and  mountains  on  either  side  offered  game  to 
the  hunter.  Gazelles,  antelopes,  foxes,  hares,  and  other  small 
animals,  such  as  rabbits,  abounded.  Did  one  crave  greater 
adventure,  he  might  follow  the  leopard  and  the  lion.  It  was 
quite  the  custom  for  the  wealthy  man,  who  followed  the  chase 
for  sport,  to  collect  wild  animals  and  add  them  to  the  menagerie 
usually  found  on  the  large  estates.  Here  were  elephants  and 
baboons  from  Asia,  giraffes  from  the  upper  Nile,  lions,  leopards, 
hyenas  and  gazelles  from  the  deserts.  Some  became  quite 
tame  and  were  taught  tricks.  Lions  were  favorite  pets,  and 
kings  often  took  them  along  on  their  campaigns.  Monkeys 
were  found  in  almost  every  household ;  and  since  hunting  was 
so  popular,  various  kmds  of  hounds  were  more  numerous  than 
other  species  of  dogs. 

In  addition  to  the  small  canoe  in  which  he  hunted  water 
birds,  the  nobleman  usually  had  a  large,  square-sailed,  double- 
masted  boat  in  which  he  would  take  his  family  and  friends  for 
an  evening  sail  down  the  river.  His  musicians  would  accom- 
pany him,  and  dispense  sweet  strains  on  their  harps  and  lutes, 
in  harmony  with  the  quiet  waters. 

Feasting  was  popular  alike  with  men  and  women.     Music 

'Erman:  Life  in  Ancient  Egypt,  235. 


98  THE  world's  progress. 

and  dancing  were  invariably  furnished  as  means  of  enter- 
tainment. Many  pictures  of  the  banquet  remain.  Sometimes 
ladies  in  elaborate  toilettes  are  shown,  partaking  of  all  sorts 
of  dainties,  while  dancing  girls  move  gracefully  before  them, 
beating  time  to  the  music  which  accompanied  them.  Sometimes 
the  dances  were  intricate ;  one  of  them  pictured  in  a  tomb  seems 
to  represent  papyrus  reeds,  swaying  in  the  wind.  Others  were 
yet  more  elaborate 

Music  was  popular  among  all  classes.  Flutes,  lutes  and 
harps  are  shown  in  the  tomb  pictures.  Singing  often  accom- 
panies the  harp.  Among  the  superintendents  of  "  all  the  most 
beautiful  pleasures  of  the  king  "  were  superintendents  of  sing- 
ing. Thus  it  seems  royalt}%  at  least,  did  not  trust  to  inspira- 
tion for  entertainment,  but  prudently  had  it  arranged  and 
rehearsed  in  advance.  At  Memphis  there  is  said  to  have  been 
a  school  where  music  was  taught  to  girls. 

Some  games  of  chance  were  popular  in  Egypt.  Checkers 
was  known  and  a  picture  remains  wherein  Ramses  II.  is 
playing  the  game  with  his  daughter. 

It  remains  to  speak  of  certain  other  customs  of  the  feast. 
The  ladies  would  come  together  to  make  their  toilets,  rouging 
their  lips,  blackening  their  eyes,  offering  one  another  their 
flowers  to  smell,  and  examining  each  other's  jewelry. 

"  The  serving  boys  and  girls  go  round,  offering  ointment, 
wreaths,  perfumes,  and  bowls  of  wine.  They  challenge  the 
guests  at  the  same  time  to  '  celebrate  the  joyful  day '  by  the 
enjoyment  of  the  pleasure  of  the  present  moment;  the  singers 
also  continually  repeat  the  same  as  the  refrain  to  their  song. 
They  sing  to  the  guests  as  they  quaff  the  wine : 


''  Celebrate  the  joyful  day ! 

Let  sweet  odours  and  oils  be  placed  for  thy  nostrils. 
Wreaths  of  lotus  flowers  for  the  limbs 
And  for  the  bosom  of  thy  sister,  dwelling  in  thy  heart 
Sitting  beside  thee. 

Let  song  and  music  be  made  before  thee. 
Cast  behind  thee  all  cares  and  mind  thee  of  pleasure, 
Till  cometh  the  day  when  we  drew  towards  the  land 
That  loveth  silence.' 


SOCIAL  LIFE  IX   EG^-PT. 


99 


or: 

'  Put  myrrh  on  thy  head,  array  thyself  in  fine  linen. 
Anointing  thyself  with  the  true  wonders  of  God. 
Adorn  thyself  ^^'ith  all  the  beauty  thou  cansU 
With  a  beaming  face  celebrate  the  joyful  day  and  rest  not 

therein 
For  no  one  can  take  away  his  goods  with  him, 
Yea,  no  one  returns  again,  who  has  gone  hence.' "  * 

The  men  banqueted  alone.  Dancing  and  music  diverted 
them  during  the  feast.  It  was  customary  to  pass  the  image 
of  a  mummy  around  at  the  feast,  while  words  similar  to  these 
were  repeated :  "  Look  upon  this  and  know,  even  as  it  is,  so 
shalt  thou  be — for  all  must  die."  This  in  no  way  dampened 
the  pleasures  of  the  night;  rather,  each  sought  to  enjoy  to  its 
fullest  capacity  the  fleeting  hours. 

"Ennao  •  Life  in  Andent  Egypt,  255. 


PACVDE  OF  A    HOUSE  TOWARD  THE  STSEZX. 
SECOND  THEBAN  VaUOSL 


lOO  THE  world's  progress. 

CHAPTER  XI. 
Agriculture  and  Cattle  Raising. 

Owing  to  the  inexhaustible  fertility  of  the  Nile  valley,  fine 
crops  were  always  forthcoming  on  the  land  reached  by  the 
annual  overflow.  The  rich  mud  deposited  by  the  flood  left  the 
productive  qualities  of  the  soil  restored,  and  it  was  never 
necessary  to  leave  the  fields  lie  fallow.  However,  the  ground 
had  not  only  to  be  merely  reached  by  the  river  waters,  but  to  be 
saturated,  for  rain  seldom  fell  and  whatever  humidity  was  sup- 
plied the  growing  vegetation,  came  from  the  overflow.  A 
system  of  irrigation  brought  the  water  in  trenches  as  near  each 
farm  as  possible.  From  these  trenches,  thousands  of  men  and 
boys,  employed  throughout  the  country,  lifted  water  in  buckets 
to  the  higher  land,  that  all  the  crops  might  receive  sufficient 
moisture. 

As  soon  as  the  river  receded,  all  the  valley  was  astir  with 
busy  people,  getting  the  ground  ready  for  the  grain  and  other 
seed.  Implements  of  the  farm  were  crude  indeed,  and  crude 
they  are  today.  A  high  official  in  recent  times  had  a  quantity 
of  agricultural  implements,  such  as  are  used  by  the  most 
progressive  farmers  in  America,  imported  into  Egypt  and 
endeavored  to  encourage  the  peasants  to  use  them.  Not  they. 
What  had  served  the  needs  of  seven  thousand  years  in  their 
valley  was  deemed  sufficient  for  them,  and  after  some  time, 
the  entire  outfit  had  to  be  sold  for  old  iron. 

Pictures  in  tombs  depict  many  scenes  connected  with  grain 
production — from  the  plowing  of  the  soil  to  the  storing  of 
the  grain  into  granaries.  From  these  pictures  we  are  able 
to  outline  the  daily  life  of  the  peasant. 

Their  plows  were  crude,  wooden  implements,  which  at 
best  did  little  more  than  scratch  over  the  soil.  Coarse  clods 
of  earth  had  to  be  broken  with  a  sort  of  wooden  hoe.  Then 
the  farmer  scattered  seed  over  the  mellow  ground,  driving 
flocks  of  sheep  across  the  fields  to  tread  it  in.  Aside  from 
the  matter  of  irrigation,  the  crops  needed  little  attention  until 
the  time  for  harvest     Then  the  grain  was  cut  by  a  sickle, 


SOCIAL    U^fi   INT    EGYPT.  lOI 

loaded  on  to  donkeys  and  taken  to  the  threshing-floor,  located 
near  the  village.  Here  in  early  times  it  was  trodden  out  by 
donkeys,  driven  back  and  forth  over  it.  Later  oxen  were  in 
greater  favor  for  threshing.  The  grain  was  freed  from  chaff 
by  throwing  it  up  into  the  air  rapidly.  The  grain  fell  straight 
down,  while  the  chaff  was  blown  forward.  Now  it  was  ready 
for  the  "  scribes  of  the  granary,"  who  measured  it  and  super- 
vised it  while  being  stored  safely  away.  Sometimes  the  boats 
of  a  nobleman  would  ply  back  and  forth  for  weeks  together, 
bringing  his  heavy  yield  of  millet  and  barley  to  his  granaries. 

One  word  about  the  "  corn  "  of  Egypt.  The  Indian  corn 
which  we  call  corn  today  is  a  native  American  product,  and 
was  unknown  to  antiquity.  Corn  has  been  used  as  a  common 
name  for  all  grain.  Wheat,  barley  and  millet  were  the  leading 
grains  of  Eg>'pt. 

Taxes  were  paid  in  kind — in  produce;  so  naturally,  large 
quantities  of  grain  were  poured  yearly  into  the  coffers  of  the 
government.  This  was  stored  against  times  of  need  which 
occasionally  fell  upon  Egypt.  It  was  in  one  of  these  years 
when  a  famine  swept  over  the  east  that  Joseph's  brothers  came 
down  into  the  valley  to  buy  grain  from  government  granaries. 

Little  is  known  of  the  vegetables  grown  in  antiquity. 
Probably  many  of  those  common  today  were  raised.  Melons 
were  extensively  grown ;  onions  and  cucumbers  were  probably 
known  and  the  grape  vine  was  extensively  cultivated. 

Cattle  raising  was  carried  to  some  perfection  The  Egyp- 
tians understood  well  the  secrets  of  high  breeding  and  produced 
especially  fine  specimens  of  cows  and  oxen.  Being  fond  of 
all  animals,  they  were  partial  to  the  ox,  symbolic  of  great 
strength,  and  to  the  cow.  sacred  to  Isis.  As  the  lion,  with 
its  strength,  has  appealed  to  many  people,  so  the  ox  was  a 
favorite  with  the  dwellers  on  the  Nile. 

The  herders  made  up  a  class  by  themselves.  In  the  sum- 
mer they  drove  the  cattle  up  north,  into  the  marshes,  where 
pasture  was  good.  The  average  Egyptian  looked  upon  these 
men  with  deepest  disgust,  for  they  let  their  hair  grow,  and 
wore  beards.  They  lived  in  portable  reed  huts.  Their  lives 
were  quite  primitive  and  they  had  a  general  unkempt  appear- 
ance. They  dressed  very  little,  and  their  efforts  to  copy  the 
Egyptian  skirt  in  their  stiff  matting,  afforded  the  townsman 


102  th^  world'vS  progress. 

much  amusement.  They  spent  their  idle  time  weaving  papyrus 
reeds  into  mats,  and  wove  boats  from  the  same  useful  plant. 

When  the  fall  came,  they  returned  with  their  herds  from 
the  northern  marshes.  When  they  reached  home,  officials  came 
to  inspect  the  flocks.  They  noted  the  increase  of  the  stock, 
all  losses  and  other  matters  of  interest  to  the  owners.  Records 
show  that  single  proprietors  sometimes  owned  as  many  as 
1,300  cows,  in  addition  to  other  cattle. 

Large  flocks  of  sheep  were  kept,  and  goats  were  plentiful. 
Few  pictures  of  pigs  are  to  be  seen,  and  those  only  in  the 
New  Empire  period.  The  pig  was  objected  to  on  religious 
grounds,  as  unclean. 

Their  fondness  for  animals  led  the  Egyptians  to  receive 
as  many  wild  animals  as  possible  into  their  flocks.  These  were 
fattened  with  the  cattle.  Mention  is  made  of  the  ibex  and 
antelope  being  especially  valued  when  they  had  been  fed  for 
awhile  with  the  herds. 

Birds  were  apparently  not  extensively  domesticated.  This 
was  not  necessary,  for  the  bird-catchers  could  find  any  number 
of  ducks  and  geese  in  the  marshes,  fatten  them  for  a  time, 
and  supply  them  without  the  trouble  of  raising  them.  The 
goose  was  the  favorite  bird.  Roast  goose  was  a  favorite  dish 
and  was  offered  as  a  delicacy  to  the  gods.  Pictures  even  show 
geese  kept  as  pets,  in  the  place  of  dogs  or  monkeys. 

While  the  whole  civilization  of  Egypt  was  based  on  its 
agriculture  and  its  cattle  raising,  the  farmer  and  herder  had 
no  social  standing.  The  tiller  of  the  soil  was  regarded  as  an 
overworked  creature  who  never  became  prosperous.  The  land 
was  generally  owned  by  great  noblemen  of  wealth,  who  them- 
selves received  the  profit. 

"  The  following  sad  sketch  of  the  lot  of  the  harvestmen 
was  written  by  the  compiler  of  a  didactic  letter,  of  which  many 
copies  are  extant,  and  implies  not  only  a  personal  opinion,  but 
the  general  view  of  this  matter :  *  The  worm  has  taken  half 
of  the  food,  the  hippopotamus  the  other  half ;  there  were  many 
mice  in  the  fields,  the  locusts  have  come  down  and  the  cattle 
have  eaten,  and  the  sparrows  have  stolen.  Poor  miserable 
agriculturist!  What  was  left  on  the  threshing  floor  thieves 
made  away  with.  .  .  .  Then  the  scribe  lands  on  the  bank 
to   receive  the   harvest,   his   followers   carry   sticks   and   the 


SOCIAI.  LIFE   IN    EGYPT.  103 

negroes  carry  palm  rods.  They  say :  *  Give  up  the  corn  ' — and 
there  is  none  there.  Then  they  beat  him  as  he  Hes  stretched 
out  and  bound  to  the  ground,  they  throw  him  into  the  canal 
and  he  sinks  down,  head  under  water.  .  .  .  This  is,  of 
course,  an  exaggerated  picture,  which  is  purposely  overdrawn 
by  the  writer,  in  order  to  emphasize  the  striking  contrast  that 
he  draws  in  his  eulogy  of  the  profession  of  scribe ;  in  its  main 
features,  however,  it  gives  us  a  very  true  idea,  for  the  lot  of 
the  ancient  peasant  very  much  resembled  that  of  the  modern 
fellah.  The  latter  labours  and  toils  without  enjoying  the  re- 
sults of  his  own  work.  He  earns  a  scanty  subsistence,  and, 
notwithstanding  all  his  industry,  he  gains  no  great  renown 
amongst  his  countrymen  of  the  towns:  the  best  they  can  say 
of  him  is,  that  he  is  vorthv  to  be  compared  with  his  own 
cattle.'" 

Artisans  and  Their  Crafts. 

Countries  today  can  easily  import  such  articles  of  manu- 
facture as  are  not  produced  within  their  own  boundaries.  A 
single  household  may  possess  silk  made  in  India,  porcelain 
from  China,  curtains  and  laces  from  Belgium,  cutlery  from 
England,  and  some  musical  instruments  made  in  Germany.  All 
this  was  different  in  antiquity.  Egypt  long  remained  isolated. 
She  developed  a  higher  civilization  than  her  neighbors,  and 
what  her  people  required  had  to  be  produced  for  the  most  part 
within  her  borders.  It  followed  naturally  that  a  wide  variety 
of  trades  and  crafts  grew  up  in  the  limited  valley  of  the  Nile. 
To  be  sure,  during  her  empire  period  many  lands  sent  their 
choicest  products  as  tribute,  yet  even  then,  Egyptians  held 
first  place  in  certain  arts  and  crafts. 

There  was  little  native  wood  in  the  valley.  When  the 
conquests  of  Thutmose  I.  established  relations  with  Syria, 
woods  were  imported  to  some  extent.  Mummies  have  been 
found  encased  in  the  rare  cedars  of  Lebanon.  Generally 
speaking,  however,  substitutes  had  to  be  found  for  timber. 
Light  boats  were  made  from  reeds,  and  for  the  making  of 
larger  ones,  boatmakers  became  expert  in  joining  together 
small  pieces  of  wood,  thus  forming  large  boards,  strong  enough 
to  bear  severe  strains.    For  some  purposes,  cartonage  was  sub- 

Erman:  Life  in  Ancient  Egypt,  4i5. 


104  th^  world's  progress. 

stituted.  This  was  composed  of  several  layers  of  coarse  linen 
glued  together.  It  was  used  extensively  for  the  manufacture 
of  coffins.  In  veneering  rare  woods  upon  less  costly  founda- 
tions, the  Egyptians  far  surpassed  any  modern  efforts.  Wood 
carvers  reached  a  high  degree  of  skill  in  fashioning  little 
statuettes  and  images  from  wood,  also  in  carving,  with  ex- 
quisite detail,  tiny  wooden  amulets  and  ornaments.  Handles 
of  knives  sometimes  display  the  dexterity  of  the  wood  carvers. 
Even  greater,  perhaps,  was  their  success  in  metal  work. 
Bronze  was  commonly  used  for  articles  of  every  day  use. 
Iron  was  known  and  was  reserved  more  especially  for  weapons 
of  warfare  and  for  some  kinds  of  knives.  For  a  time,  silver 
was  more  highly  valued  than  gold,  being  more  rare.  Later 
it  was  found  in  greater  quantities,  and  took  rank  with  gold, 
or  had  even  less  value.  Statues  of  the  gods  were  made  com- 
monly in  bronze,  although  many  were  fashioned  from  gold. 
The  goldsmith  was  a  person  of  good  social  standing.  He 
made  statues  of  the  gods  to  adorn  the  temples  and  he  cut  and 
set  jewels  for  royalty.  The  number  of  precious  stones  was 
quite  extensive  in  Egypt.  Diamonds,  rubies  and  sapphires 
were  seemingly  unknown,  but  amethysts,  emeralds,  garnets, 
agates,  jasper  and  lapis  lazuli  were  available.  The  Egyptians, 
both  men  and  women,  were  very  fond  of  personal  adornments, 
and  jewelry  was  worn  in  profusion  by  the  -wealthy  and  to 
some  extent  by  all.  Amber,  turquoise,  coral  and  pearls  were 
popular.  Every  man  wore  a  seal  ring — and  this  not  merely 
as  an  ornament.  Letters  and  documents  were  never  signed  in 
these  ages — rather,  one  affixed  his  seal.  The  noble  wore  a 
costly  ring;  the  citizen  of  humble  position,  one  of  slight  value, 
but  every  one  who  expected  to  transact  any  business  or  carry 
on  any  correspondence  wore  a  seal  ring  of  some  kind.  Women, 
to  the  same  extent,  wore  necklaces.  Most  elaborate  ones 
have  been  discovered  in  the  tombs  of  royalty;  very  simple 
ones  adorned  the  necks  of  the  humbler  women,  yet  none  was 
so  poor  as  to  lack  a  necklace  altogether.  Bracelets,  anklets, 
hair  combs  and  ornaments,  amulets,  chains,  and  scarabs  were 
greatly  in  demand,  and  the  goldsmiths  of  ancient  Egypt  at- 
tained great  originality,  skill  and  perfection  in  his  art.  So 
constant  being  the  demand  for  inexpensive  jewelry,  remark- 
able skill  was  reached  in  imitating  precious  stones  in  glass. 


SOCIAL   UFE   IN    EGYPT.  IO5 

Indeed,  it  is  difficult  for  experts  today  to  determine  in  some 
cases  whether  the  stone  be  real  or  imitated. 

In  glass  work,  the  Egyptians  preferred  colored  glass  to 
the  clear.  Whatever  glass  utensils  remain  are  invariably  col- 
ored. Blue  was  a  favorite  color.  Thin  layers  of  glass  were 
used  sometimes  to  decorate  coffins.  Blown  glass  was  not 
made  in  early  times,  statements  to  the  contrary  notwithstand- 
ing. Pictures  once  supposed  to  represent  glass  blowers  at 
work  are  now  understood  to  depict  one  stage  of  metal  working. 

Pottery  was  never  brought  to  any  high  mark  by  the  Nile 
dwellers.  Clay  utensils  were  used  for  only  the  most  ordinary 
purposes,  and  the  jars,  bowls,  and  vases  which  remain  give 
evidence  of  poor  material  having  been  used  in  the  first  place, 
indifferent  labor  in  the  next  place,  poor  fire  and  little  skill  in 
ornamentation.  These  indifferent  results  were  satisfactory 
enough  for  the  commonest  uses  and  for  anything  more,  some- 
thing in  metal  appears  to  have  been  demanded. 

Hunting  being  a  favorite  pastime,  and  cattle  raising  car- 
ried on  to  such  a  wide  extent,  Egypt  became  rich  in  skins. 
The  skins  of  rarer  animals  were  never  shorn  of  the  natural 
hair.  This  was  dressed  and  used  for  coverings  of  couches 
and  chairs — for  shields  and  even  garments.  Skins  of  cattle 
were  made  into  leather  and  worked  up  into  sandals,  straps  and 
aprons  for  workmen.  Pictures  of  boats  are  shown  with 
leather  sails,  and  leather  was  used  for  manifold  purposes. 

The  extensive  use  of  linen  for  clothing  necessitated  a  large 
production  of  flax.  Those  who  wove — mostly  women,  in 
spite  of  Herodotus  to  the  contrary — attained  a  high  skill  and 
dexterity  in  their  work.  Linen  was  generally  kept  white,  and 
was  frequently  made  so  thin  and  sheer  that  the  outlines  of  the 
body  were  visible  through  it. 

Of  the  condition  and  life  of  the  average  artisan,  we  know 
that  he  was  allowed  to  hold  no  office  under  the  government 
and  had  no  political  rights  whatever.  Every  man  was  obliged 
by  law  to  have  some  calling  and  to  follow  it,  nor  could  he 
work  at  trades  other  than  his  own.  This  insured  good  work — 
always  exacted  by  the  Egyptians  from  their  workmen  who 
often  received  but  meager  food  and  no  wages.  Probably  the 
highly  prized  work  of  the  goldsmith  was  well  paid.  The 
Egyptians  frequently  paid  for  their  goods  in  kind. 


io6  THE  world's  progress. 

Large  numbers  of  laborers  belonged  to  the  state  or  the 
temples,  and  they  were  provided  only  the  bare  necessities  of 
life.  Some  of  these  men  knew  how  to  chisel  the  hard  granite 
which  almost  defies  the  strong  steel  of  today;  others  could 
decorate  tombs  with  animated  scenes  which  still  today  retain 
their  original  colors.  All  these  men  lived  in  wretched  poverty, 
in  little  mud  huts,  and  often  had  to  besiege  their  overseers 
for  bread.  It  appears  to  have  been  customary  to  give  these 
workmen  their  monthly  rations  at  the  beginning  of  the 
month.  Probably  the  supply  was  scanty  at  best,  and  the 
hungry  laborers  made  heavy  inroads  upon  it  during  the  first 
few  days.  Ere  twenty  days  had  passed  they  were  often  entirely 
out  of  meal  for  bread,  to  say  nothing  of  oil  and  other  necessi- 
ties. Only  a  threat  to  appeal  to  the  king  would  at  times 
bring  the  needed  food.  The  workmen  maintained  that  the 
officers  withheld  from  them  their  dues,  only  to  add  it  to  their 
own  personal  stores — a  claim  that  was  no  doubt  well  founded, 
and  needs  no  better  proof  than  the  granting  of  more  food  to 
those  who  united  and  ceased  to  work  until  supplies  were 
forthcoming. 

Markets. 

For  an  understanding  of  the  old  Egyptian  market  we  can 
do  no  better  than  read  the  description  worked  out  by  Maspero 
from  scenes  still  existing  in  the  tombs  : 

"  WJe  .  .  .  suddenly  emerge  into  the  full  sunshine 
of  a  noisy  little  square,  where  a  market  is  being  held.  Sheep, 
geese,  goats,  asses,  large-horned  oxen,  scattered  in  unequal 
groups  in  the  center,  are  awaiting  a  purchaser.  Peasants, 
fishermen,  small  retail  dealers,  squat  several  deep  in  front 
of  the  houses,  displaying  before  them,  in  great  rush  baskets 
or  on  low  tables,  loaves  of  pastry,  fruit,  vegetables,  fish,  meat 
raw  or  cooked,  jewels,  perfumes,  stuffs,  all  the  necessities 
and  all  the  superfluities  of  Egyptian  life. 

"  The  customers  stroll  past  and  leisurely  examine  the 
quality  of  the  commodities  offered  for  sale ;  each  carries  some 
thing  of  his  own  manufacture  in  his  hand — a  new  tool,  some 
shoes,  a  mat,  or  a  small  box  full  of  rings  of  copper,  silver,  even 
of  gold,  of  the  weight  of  an  outnou  (a  little  over  two  ounces), 
which  he  proposes  to  barter  for  the  objects  he  requires.    Two 


SOCIAI,  LI?E  IN    EGYPT.  IO7 

customers  stop  at  the  same  moment  in  front  of  a  fellah,  who 
exhibits  onions  and  wheat  in  front  of  a  basket.  Instead  of 
money,  the  first  holds  two  necklets  of  glass  or  of  many  colored 
earthenware,  the  second  a  round  fan  with  a  wooden  handle, 
and  one  of  those  triangular  ventilators  which  the  cooks  use 
to  quicken  the  fire.  '  Here  is  a  beautiful  necklet  which  will 
please  you,  this  is  what  you  want,'  cries  the  former;  whilst 
the  latter  urges,  'Here  is  a  fan  and  a  ventilator.'  However, 
the  fellah,  quite  overcome  by  this  double  attack,  methodically 
proceeds  to  first  seize  a  string  of  beads  for  closer  examination. 
*  Let  me  see  it,  that  I  may  fix  a  price.'  The  one  asks  too 
much,  the  other  too  little ;  from  concession  to  concession  they 
finally  come  to  terms,  and  settle  the  number  of  onions  or  the 
weight  of  corn  which  the  necklet  or  fan  may  be  worth.  Else- 
where it  is  a  question  of  bartering  a  pair  of  sandals  or  a  row 
of  enamelled  beads  for  some  perfume.  *  Here,'  urges  the 
buyer,  *  is  a  very  strong  pair  of  shoes.'  But  the  seller  does  not 
require  shoes  for  the  moment,  so  he  offers  one  of  his  small 
pots  in  exchange  for  a  row  of  beads.  *  It  is  delicious  when  a 
few  drops  are  poured  out,'  he  explains,  with  a  persuasive  air. 
A  woman  thrusts  under  the  nose  of  a  kneeling  individual 
two  jars,  probably  containing  some  ointment  of  her  own  manu- 
facture. *  Here,'  she  cries,  *  it  smells  sweet  enough  to  entice 
thee.'  Behind  this  group  two  men  are  discussing  the  value  of 
a  packet  of  fish-hooks;  a  woman,  box  in  hand,  is  a  vendor  of 
bracelets  and  necklets;  another  woman  endeavors  to  obtain  a 
reduction  upon  the  price  of  a  fish,  which  is  being  dressed 
before  her. 

"  When  it  is  a  question  of  a  large  animal,  or  of  objects 
of  considerable  value,  the  accounts  become  intricate.  For 
instance,  Ahmosou  sells  a  bull  for  a  mat,  five  measures  of 
honey,  eleven  measures  of  oil,  and  seven  objects  of  different 
kinds.  Now,  imagine  the  calculations  which  must  have  been 
made  before  he  succeeded  in  establishing  such  a  complicated 
balance.  .  .  .  The  mat  was  estimated  at  25  outnou,  the 
honey  at  4.  the  oil  at  10,  and  so  on,  the  whole  weighing  119 
outnou,  which  is  not  too  dear  for  a  beast  in  good  condition. 
This  custom  of  payment  by  one  of  the  usual  metals  is  so 
convenient,  and  dispenses  with  so  many  calculations,  that  it 
has  been  adopted  even  for  the  minor  transactions  of  daily 


io8  THE  world's  progress. 

life.  The  butcher,  the  baker,  the  corn-chandler,  all  the  small 
tradesmen  prefer  exchange  for  metal,  which  is  of  small  com- 
pass and  does  not  spoil,  to  exchange  for  objects,  often  bulky 
in  size,  which  is  liable  to  deteriorate  if  kept  too  long  in  the 
house.  A  pair  of  ducks  is  worth  a  quarter  of  an  outnou  in 
copper ;  a .  fan,  a  quarter ;  a  bronze  razor  is  worth  a  whole 
outnou;  a  pickaxe,  two;  a  goat,  two;  an  ox-head,  half  an 
outnou  in  silver;  a  leather  bottle  of  fine  wine,  three  outnou 
of  gold.     .     .     , 

"  Two  or  three  commercial  streets  or  bazaars  open  from 
the  other  side  of  the  square,  and  the  crowd  hastens  towards 
them  when  it  leaves  the  market.  Nearly  their  whole  length 
is  filled  with  stalls  and  shops,  in  which  not  only  Egypt,  but  the 
majority  of  the  oriental  nations  display  their  most  varied 
productions.  Beautifully  ornamented  stuffs  from  Syria, 
Phoenician  or  Hittite  jewellery,  scented  woods  and  gums  from 
Punt  and  the  Holy  Lands;  lapis  and  embroideries  from  Baby- 
lon; coral,  gold,  iron,  tin  and  amber  from  the  far-distant 
countries  beyond  the  seas,  are  found  scattered  pell-mell 
amongst  the  native  fine  linen,  jewels,  glass-work  and  furniture. 
The  shop  is  usually  independent  from  the  rest  of  the  house, 
and  is  let  separately.  It  is  a  small,  square  room,  often  a 
simple  shed,  widely  open  in  front,  and  closed  every  evening 
by  means  of  wooden  shutters,  held  in  place  by  cross-bars  with 
one  or  two  mats,  one  or  two  low  stools,  some  shelves  fixed  to 
the  wall,  which  hold  the  goods;  perhaps  behind  the  shop  are 
one  or  two  carefully  closed  rooms  where  the  most  valuable 
objects  are  stored.  Most  of  the  tradesmen  are  also  manufac- 
turers. They  have  apprentices  or  workmen  who  work  for 
them,  and  they  join  them  during  the  intervals  betv^^een  their 
sales.  .  .  .  Artisans  of  the  same  trade  have  usually  a 
natural  tendency  to  collect  together,  to  dwell  side  by  side  in 
the  same  place — blacksmiths  with  blacksmiths,  curriers  with 
curriers,  goldsmiths  with  goldsmiths,  forming  a  small  city 
in  which  objects  of  the  same  kind  only  are  found."* 

The  Business  oe  War. 

It  would  be  misleading  to  speak  of  the  profession  of  war 
in  Egypt,  for  the  Egyptians  were  essentially  unwarlike.     In 
>  Maspero :  Ancient  Egypt.  18. 


SOCIAI.   LiFi;   IN    EGYPT.  IO9 

early  times  they  lived  in  their  isolated  valley,  and  the  nature 
of  the  country  on  either  side  of  them  was  not  such  as  to  tempt 
them  to  reach  out  to  conquer  it.  When  Nubian  and  nomadic 
tribes  stole  their  cattle  and  otherwise  molested  their  outlying 
districts,  it  was  a  comparatively  simple  matter  to  repulse  them 
and  reduce  their  number.  Such  raids  were  not  regular  mili- 
tary campaigns — far  from  it.  They  were  expeditions  of 
plunder  and  pillage.  "  I  have  carried  off  their  women  and 
captured  their  men ;  for  I  marched  to  their  well ;  I  slew  their 
oxen,  cut  down  their  corn  and  set  fire  to  it."  Thus  did  one 
.pharaoh  record  his  victory  on  a  monument  raised  to  com- 
memorate it.  War  with  tribes  of  this  strength  was  not  likely 
to  elevate  the  military  standard  of  Egypt. 

Contact  with  the  Hyksos  during  the  Middle  Empire  taught 
the  Nile  dwellers  more  of  warfare  than  they  had  previously 
known.  By  superior  use  of  arms  these  Asiatics  were  able 
to  take  possession  of  the  land,  which  they  held  until,  from 
the  struggling  feudal  nobles,  a  ruler  came  forth,  strong  enough 
to  establish  himself  and  collect  an  army.  By  adopting  the 
method  of  battle  practised  by  the  enemy,  the  Hyksos  were  at 
last  driven  from  the  valley,  and  were  pursued  far  beyond 
their  former  borders. 

The  New  Empire  saw  a  brief  period  of  military  successes, 
but  they  rested  on  a  slight  foundation.  The  Egyptians  were 
naturally  poor  soldiers.  A  strong  and  fearless  general  was 
able  to  rouse  them  to  action,  and  by  meeting  detached  tribes, 
they  were  able  to  overcome  them.  Then  with  confidence  born 
of  success,  they  sometimes  made  a  brilliant  progress  to  the 
civilization  of  Mesopotamia.  Asiatics  had  not  yet  learned  the 
real  nature  of  those  to  whom  they  offered  tribute.  When  once 
it  was  learned,  tribute  was  no  longer  forthcoming,  or  indeed, 
it  was  sometimes  demanded  by  the  Asiatics  of  Egypt. 

Of  the  life  of  a  private  soldier,  we  know  very  little.  Dur- 
ing times  of  peace  he  was  a  tiller  of  the  soil,  or  a  common 
laborer.  He  thought  no  hardship  greater  than  that  which 
compelled  him  to  enter  the  service  of  an  army.  He  regarded 
war  as  the  greatest  evil  and  was  disheartened  by  the  slightest 
defeat.  This  was  poor  material  to  convert  into  effective 
soldiers  and  only  when  the  Egyptian  king  received  a  large 
number  of  mercenaries  into  his  ranks  was  his  army  particularly 

efficient. 
1—9 


no  THB  world's  progress. 

Many  times  several  thousand  soldiers  were  dispatched  to 
escort  workmen  sent  to  obtain  granite  for  the  king's  tomb.  It 
is  probable  that  their  duties  were  less  military  than  civil,  for 
they  no  doubt  were  set  to  cutting  out  the  granite  from  the 
quarry  and  assisted  in  transporting  it  to  the  building  site. 

Of  the  equipment  of  the  soldiers,  it  seems  that  in  early 
times  they  carried  simply  a  bow,  wearing  ostrich  feathers  on 
their  heads  as  a  token  of  victory.  Later  they  carried  shields 
and  spears  or  battle  axes.  The  order  of  battle  in  later  times 
was  to  place  chariots  in  the  front  and  rear,  with  strong  de- 
tachments of  infantry  between  them.  Ramses  II.  caused  the 
whole  story  of  his  victory  over  the  Hittite  king  at  Kadesh  to  be 
painted  in  his  temple.  This  is  one  of  the  best  sources  for 
military  history  during  the  New  Empire.  "  We  see  how  the 
soldiers  of  the  *  first  army  of  Amon '  pitch  their  camp ;  the 
shields  are  placed  side  by  side  so  as  to  construct  a  great  four- 
cornered  enclosure.  One  entrance  only  is  left,  and  this  is 
fortified  with  barricades  and  is  defended  by  four  divisions  of 
infantry.  In  the  middle  of  the  camp  a  large  square  space  indi- 
cates the  position  of  the  royal  tent;  the  smaller  tents  of  the 
officers  surround  it.  The  wide  space  between  these  tents 
and  the  outer  enclosure  serves  as  a  camping-ground  for  the 
common  soldiers  and  for  the  cattle,  and  here  we  see  a  series 
of  life-like  scenes,  in  the  representation  of  which  the  Egyptian 
artist  has  evidently  taken  great  delight.  In  one  corner  stands 
the  rows  of  war-chariots ;  the  horses  are  unharnessed  and  paw 
the  ground  contentedly,  while  they  receive  their  food.  Close 
by  are  posted  the  two- wheeled  baggage  cars;  the  oxen  are 
looking  round  at  the  food,  and  do  not  appear  to  trouble  them- 
selves about  the  king's  big  tame  lion,  which  has  lain  down 
near  them  wearied  out.  The  most  characteristic  animal  in 
the  camp,  however,  is  the  donkey  with  his  double  panniers  in 
which  he  has  to  carry  the  heavy  sacks  and  jars  of  provisions. 
We  meet  with  him  here,  there,  and  everywhere,  in  all  manner 
of  positions;  for  instance,  he  drops  on  his  knee  indignantly, 
as  if  he  could  carry  his  panniers  no  longer;  he  prances  about 
when  the  soldiers  want  to  lade  him  with  the  sacks;  he  lies 
down  and  brays,  or  he  takes  his  ease  rolling  in  the  dust  near 
his  load.  The  boys,  also,  whose  business  it  is  to  fasten  up  the 
donkeys  to  pegs,  contribute  to  the  general  liveliness  of  the 


SOCIAL   UFE  IN    EGYPT.  Ill 

canip;  in  more  than  one  place  they  have  begun  to  quarrel 
about  their  work,  and  in  their  anger  they  beat  each  other 
with  the  pegs.  Other  boys  belonging  to  the  camp  have  to 
hang  the  baggage  on  posts,  or  to  bring  food  for  the  soldiers, 
or  to  fetch  the  skins  of  w:iter.  These  boys  insist  upon  quarrel- 
ing too;  the  skins  are  thrown  down,  and  they  use  their  fists 
freely. 

"  In  contrast  to  these  scenes  of  daily  life  in  the  camp,  we 
have  on  the  other  hand  a  representation  of  the  wild  confusion 
of  battle.  Close  to  the  bank  of  the  Orontes  is  the  royal  chariot, 
in  which  the  king  stands  drawn  up  to  his  full  height;  behind 
and  on  each  side  the  chariots  of  the  Cheta^  surround  him; 
while  many  more  are  crossing  the  stream.  The  Egyptian 
chariots  are  indeed  in  the  rear  of  the  king,  but  in  ordei  to 
come  to  his  help  they  would  have  first  to  force  a  way  through 
the  chariots  of  the  Cheta.  In  the  meantime,  the  Pharaoh  fights 
by  himself,  and  pours  down  such  a  frightful  rain  of  arrows 
on  the  enemy  that  they  fly  in  wild  confusion.  Hit  by  the 
arrows,  their  horses  take  fright,  dash  the  chariots  to  pieces, 
and  throw  out  the  warriors,  or  they  get  loose  and  breaking 
through  their  own  ranks,  spread  confusion  everywhere.  The 
dead  and  the  wounded  Cheta  fall  one  upon  anotlier;  those 
who  escape  the  arrows  of  the  king  throw  themselves  into  the 
Orontes  and  try  to  swim  across  to  Kadesh,  which  is  seen  on 
the  opposite  bank  surrounded  by  walls  and  trenches.     .     .     . 

**  Whilst  the  Pharaoh  thus  slays  the  Cheta,  the  prince  of 
the  latter  people  stands  watching  the  battle  from  the  corner 
between  Kadesh  and  the  Orontes  in  the  midst  of  a  mighty 
square  of  8,000  foot  soldiers  of  the  elite  of  his  troops;  *he 
does  not  come  out  to  fight,  because  he  is  afraid  before  his 
Majesty,  since  he  has  seen  his  Majesty.*  When  he  sees  that 
the  battle  is  lost,  he  says  in  admiration :  *  He  is  as  Sutech  the 
glorious,  Ba'al  lives  in  his  body.'  "* 

'That  is,  the  Hittite  king. 

'Erman:  Life  in  Ancient  Egypt,  529. 


12  THE   WORI^d'S   progress. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

Praising   Learning.* 

I  have  seen  violence,  I  have  seen  violence,  give  thy  heart  after 
letters. 

I  have  seen  one  free  from  labors ;  consider  there  is  not  any- 
thing beyond  letters. 

Love  letters  as  thy  mother.    I  make  its  beauty  go  in  thy  face. 

It  is  a  greater  possession  than  all  besides. 

He  who  has  commenced  to  avail  himself  is  from  his  infancy 
a  counsellor. 

He  is  sent  to  perform  commissions. 

He  who  does  not  go  is  in  sack-cloth. 

I  have  not  seen  a  blacksmith  on  a  commission,  a  founder  who 
goes  on  an  embassy. 

I  have  seen  the  blacksmith  at  his  work  at  the  mouth  of  the 
furnace. 

His  fingers  like  things  of  crocodiles,  he  smells  worse  than 
the  eggs  of  fishes. 

Every  carpenter  carrying  tools, — is  he  more  at  rest  than  the 
laborer  ? 

I  tell  you  the  fisherman  suffers  more  than  any  employment. 
Consider,  is  he  not  toiling  on  the  river?  he  is  mixed  with  the 

crocodiles. 
Should  the  clumps  of  papyrus  diminish,  then  he  is  crying  for 

help. 
If  he  has  not  been  told  that  a  crocodile  is  not  there,  terrors 

blind  him. 
Consider,  there  is  not  an  employment  destitute  of  superior 

ones 
Except  the  scribe,  who  is  first,  for  he  knows  letters ;  he  is 

greater  than  they, 
Shouldst  thou  walk  after  great  men,  thou  art  to  proceed  with 

great  knowledge. 
Do  i?ot  say  proud  words.     Be  sealed  in  thyself  alone. 

•  From  inscriptloii  on  a  tomb ;  trans,  in  "Dwellers  on  the  Nile." 


social  life,  in  egypt.  ii3 

Schools  and  Education. 

The  Greek  loved  learning  for  itself  alone.  Not  so  the 
Egyptian.  He,  too,  praised  learning  and  considered  no  call- 
ing so  worthy  as  that  of  the  scribe.  It  was  not  because  an 
education  lifted  one  out  of  a  sordid  world  to  purer  heights  of 
knowledge,  however,  but  rather,  because  the  scribe  was  exempt 
from  physical  exertion,  and  if  ambitious  and  persevering, 
might  find  all  official  doors  open  to  him.  A  citizen  wished 
his  son  to  receive  an  education  in  order  that  he  might  occupy 
a  position  superior  and  less  arduous  than  he  could  other- 
wise hope  to  fill.  The  lot  of  the  laborer  in  Egypt  was  hard. 
Working  constantly  he  could  but  provide  himself  and  family 
with  their  scanty  food  and  scanty  clothing.  At  any  time  he 
might  be  pressed  into  public  service  and  here  he  was  fortunate 
if  he  received  "  one  clean  garment  once  a  month,"  in  addition 
to  his  monthly  rations.  Scribes  were  safe  from  physical 
toil.  Quite  naturally,  it  followed  that  a  family  would  make 
every  possible  sacrifice  that  one  of  the  children  might  be  fitted 
for  a  life  more  safe  and  comfortable  than  the  average.  No 
higher  ideal,  no  loftier  motive  seems  to  have  actuated  the 
parent  than  this:  to  qualify  his  son  for  an  easy  and  lucrative 
position  in  life. 

There  were  elementary  schools  in  Egypt  in  an  early  age. 
These  were  open  to  all  children,  who  probably  paid  a  small 
fee  to  the  teacher.  Gradually  also,  there  grew  up  around 
the  temples  schools  for  the  training  of  boys  for  the  priest- 
hood. A?  the  empire  grew  and  tribute  was  asked  and  received 
from  many  tribes  and  countries,  many  scribes — copyists  and 
accountants — were  needed  in  the  service  of  the  government, 
and  schools  were  opened  in  connection  with  the  court  to  edu- 
cate boys  to  meet  this  new  demand. 

Having  spent  a  few  years  in  the  elementary  school,  the 
average  boy  was  set  to  work  to  assist  with  the  cattle,  gather 
fuel,  care  for  the  ducks  and  geese  about  his  home,  and  later 
was  put  to  learn  a  trade — generally  the  trade  of  his  father. 
However,  if  a  boy  showed  special  aptitude  for  learning  or 
seemed  more  alert  and  clever  than  ordinary,  he  was  sent  to 
the  school  for  scribes.  Here  the  training  was  vigorous.  The 
scribe  would   waken  the  youth,   calling:     "The  books  axe 


114  THE  world's  progress. 

already  in  the  hands  of  thy  companions,  take  hold  of  thy 
clothes  and  call  for  thy  sandals !  "  Discipline  was  rigid  in- 
deed. An  old  adage  held  that  a  boy's  ears  are  placed  on  his 
back — he  hears  if  he  is  flogged. 

You  will  remember  how  complex  were  the  Egyptian  styles 
of  writing — ^both  hieroglyphic  and  demotic.  Consequently 
to  be  able  to  read  and  write  was  considered  a  great  accom- 
plishment. Having  mastered  the  art  of  writing,  the  youth 
was  set  next  to  copying.  Many  of  the  old  copy  book=  still 
exist,  for  it  was  customary  to  place  them  in  the  tomb  with 
the  deceased.  Three  pages  a  day  was  the  usual  lesson.  "  By 
the  age  of  ten  or  twelve,"  says  Maspero,  "  the  child  was 
.  apprenticed  to  a  scribe  in  some  office,  who  would 
undertake  to  make  him  a  learned  scribe.  The  boy  accom- 
panied his  master  to  the  office  or  work-yard,  and  there  passed 
entire  months  copying  letters,  circulars,  legal  documents,  or 
accounts,  which  he  did  not  at  first  understand,  but  which  he 
faithfully  remembered.  .  .  .  The  pupil  copied  and  copied, 
the  master  inserted  forgotten  words,  corrected  the  faults  of 
spelling,  and  drew  on  the  margin  the  signs  or  groups  unskill- 
fully  traced.  When  the  book  was  finished  and  the  apprentice 
could  write  all  the  formulas  from  memory,  the  master  entrusted 
him  with  the  composition  of  a  few  letters,  gradually  increac- 
ing  the  number  and  adding  new  difficulties.  As  soon  as  he 
had  fairly  mastered  the  ordinary  daily  routine  his  education 
was  ended,  and  an  unimportant  post  was  sought." ' 

The  Egyptians  never  investigated  a  subject  until  they 
reduced  it  to  a  science.  A  certain  knowledge  of  geometry 
was  necessary  to  determine  boundaries  of  land,  so  valuable 
along  the  river  that  very  small  areas  were  sometimes  in 
dispute.  A  knowledge  sufficient  for  this  purpose  the  Egyp- 
tians possessed,  but  they  never  delved  deeper  into  the  matter 
and  became  proficient  in  it.  They  studied  astronomy  and 
made  charts  of  portions  of  the  heavens.  They  studied  arith- 
metic, but  never,  for  example,  wrote  a  fraction  with  a  num- 
erator larger  than  1 ;  instead  of  writing  Yz  or  %  they  wrote : 
Yi,  y^'i  y2,  %'  It  has  taken  much  patience  and  some  mgen- 
uity  to  understand  problems  found  already  worked  out  in  the 
copy  books. 

2  Maspero :  Ancient  Egypt,  9. 


^OCIAIv  LIFK  IN    EGYPT.  115 

The  subject  of  medicine  was  deemed  important,  but  the 
ancient  Egyptians  knew  nothing  about  it,  generally  speaking. 
Magic,  drugs,  herbs  and  incatitations  were  used  together. 
Believing  that  the  welfare  of  the  soul  depended  upon  the 
preservation  of  the  body,  students  never  had  the  opportunity 
of  dissecting  bodies,  either  animal  or  human.  They  had  no 
idea  of  the  vital  organs,  and  when  they  were  successful  in 
relieving  a  patient,  it  was  when,  like  some  old  herb  woman, 
they  had  learned  the  properties  of  healing  plants  and  had 
watched  their  effects  in  many  cases  until  they  became  skillful 
in  administering  them.  When  one  was  ill,  it  was  thought 
that  an  evil  spirit  had  entered  his  body.  By  magic  words 
this  must  be  driven  out  before  recovery  could  be  hoped  for. 
Magic  greatly  aided  medicine,  according  to  this  view.  Here 
is  a  formula  for  a  magic  mixture :  "  Take  two  grains  of 
incense,  two  fumigations,  two  jars  of  cedar  oil,  two  jars  of 
tas,  two  jars  of  wine,  two  jars  of  spirits  of  wine.  Apply  it 
at  the  place  of  thy  heart.  Thou  art  protected  against  the 
accidents  of  life;  thou  art  protected  against  a  violent  death; 
thou  art  protected  against  fire;  thou  are  not  ruined  on  earth, 
and  thou  escapest  in  heaven." 

Literature. 

Egypt  seems  to  have  been  lacking  in  any  considerable  num- 
ber of  literary  works.  Records  were  kept  in  the  temples; 
treatises  on  religion,  magic  and  medicine  have  been  found. 
The  Book  of  the  Dead  was  familiar  to  the  living  and  indis- 
pensable to  the  departed.  Some  folk  lore,  hymns  of  wor- 
ship and  of  victory,  and  a  few  stories,  more  or  less  complete, 
remain.  Vast  numbers  of  papyri  have  undoubtedly  perished, 
but  reference  would  probably  be  made  in  existing  manuscripts 
to  great  productions,  and  these  are  lacking.  Giving  all  credit 
to  what  has  been  recovered  and  allowing  for  the  destruction 
of  time,  the  fact  remains  that  in  literature  Egypt  was  not 
productive. 

There  are  no  literary  remains  antedating  the  Middle 
Empire ;  however,  we  have  traces  of  folk  songs  and  of  myths 
which  were  earlier  known.  The  old  belief  that  the  Egyptians 
had  no  secular  literature  was  mistaken.  Our  greatest  sources 
of  knowledge  regarding  their  literature  have  been  the  tombs 


Il6  THE  WORI,D*S   PROGRESS, 

and  temples,  and  these  were  not  places  in  which  a  people 
would  have  chosen  to  preserve  its  lighter  literature. 

It  is  probable  that  just  as  the  workmen  sing  today,  while 
they  work  along  the  Nile,  so  too  they  chanted  in  earliest 
times.  Under  the  most  trying  conditions  in  Egypt,  laborers 
sang  as  they  worked.  The  scribes  did  not  think  it  worthy 
of  their  dignity  to  chronicle  folk  songs.  Probably  little 
thought  was  ever  given  to  them.  Occasionally  a  few  lines 
are  quoted  beneath  some  tomb  pictures  to  make  it  more  vivid. 

''  The  herdsman  wading  in  the  mud  as  he  drives  his  sheep 
over  the  fields  from  which  the  flood  has  not  yet  entirely 
retreated,  says  to  his  flock :  *  In  the  water  walks  your  shep- 
herd with  the  fishes;  with  the  catfish  talketh  he;  with  the 
fish  he  changeth  greeting.'  Another  song  accompanied  the 
work  equivalent  to  threshing.  The  ancient  Egyptians,  like 
the  Israelites,  did  not  use  flails,  but  after  scattering  the  corn 
on  the  threshing-floor,  they  drove  oxen  over  it  to  tread  out 
the  grain.  Then  was  sung  with  variations :  *  Thresh,  oh 
ye  oxen!  Thresh  for  yourselves!  Oh  ye  oxen  thresh  for 
yourselves!  Thresh  straw  for  your  fodder,  thresh  grain  for 
your  master.     Take  ye  no  rest,  cool  is  the  air  this  day.'  "  * 

Mythological  tales  grew  out  of  an  attempt  to  explain 
natural  phenomena — the  rising  or  setting  sun,  the  struggle 
between  light  and  darkness.  All  phenomena  which  attracted 
sufficient  attention  furnished  material  for  myths.  It  has  been 
observed  for  instance,  that  certain  stars  never  set,  whereas 
others  after  performing  their  courses  sank  below  the  horizon. 
The  Egyptians  expressed  this  by  the  myth  of  the  Crocodile 
of  the  West,  which  fed  upon  the  setting  stars. 

"  The  sunrise  and  sunset,  alternation  of  day  and  night, 
the  solar  drama  in  all  its  details,  furnished  the  subject  of 
Egyption  mythology.  In  other  countries  the  sun-god  rode 
in  a  chariot;  in  Egypt  he  rode  in  a  boat.  Hence  the  sky  is 
considered  an  expanse  of  water,  the  Nile  being  the  earthly 
representative.  Seb  is  the  earth.  Nut  the  heaven,  Osiris  their 
son,  is  the  snn  and  is  wedded  to  Isis,  the  dawn.  From  their 
union  sprang  Horus,  the  Sun  in  his  full  strength.  Set  the 
destroyer,  is  another  child  of  Seb  and  Nut.  He  is  darkness 
•Popular  Literature  of  Ancient  Egypt.    Wiedermann. 


SOCIAL   LIFE   IN    EGYPT.  II 7 

and  weds  Nephthys,  the  Sunset.     The  contest  between  Seb 
and  Osiris  is  the  constant  subject  of  mythological  story." 

Traces  of  these  early  folk  songs  and  early  myths  survived 
in  Egy^ptian  literature.  The  literature  of  the  Middle  Empire 
shows  an  eager  interest  in  travel.  Of  the  few  books  that 
remain  from  this  period  several  relate  adventures  in  distant 
parts. 

Most  of  the  remaining  literature  belongs  to  the  New  Em- 
pire. Lyrical  and  didactic  poems,  stories,  records  and  docu- 
ments were  then  produced  in  considerable  number.  It  would 
appear  that  the  Egyptians  never  wrote  a  history  of  their 
country.  Accounts,  more  or  less  in  detail,  cover  several  reigns, 
but  nothing  like  a  chronological  treatise  of  their  development 
was  apparently  undertaken  The  New  Empire  knew  far  less 
of  the  Old  Empire  than  we  know  today. 

In  the  realm  of  religious  writing,  the  Book  of  the  Dead 
was  most  important.  Its  negative  confession  to  be  made 
before  the  judges  of  the  dead  would  imply  a  high  degree  of 
morality,  but  the  truth  was  that  it  came  into  being  in  an 
early  stage  when  words  were  thought  identical  with  the  thing 
itself.  We  find  all  peoples  passing  through  a  period  when 
great  importance  was  given  the  spoken  word.  "  I  have  not 
been  idle ;  I  have  not  been  intoxicated ;  I  have  not  told  secrets ; 
I  have  not  told  falsehoods ;  I  have  not  defrauded ;  I  have 
not  slandered;  I  have  not  caused  tears;  I  have  given  food 
to  the  hungry;  drink  to  the  thirsty,  and  clothes  to  the  "naked." 
That  confession  was  probably  formulated  in  this  early  period 
when  such  stress  was  given  to  the  spoken  word.  I^ater, 
when  people  understood  the  difference  between  the  name  and 
the  thing  itself  the  confession  remained  the  same,  because  all 
things  pertaining  to  religion  are  last  to  change. 

The  Precepts  of  Ptah-hotep,  prince  of  the  Fifth  dynasty,  is 
one  of  the  oldest  known  books  in  the  world.  It  is  now  in  the 
Bibliotheque  Nationale  at  Paris  and  is  made  up  of  what  would 
be  equivalent  to  twenty  printed  pages  of  precepts  written  to 
admonish  the  young.   The  following  indicate  their  nature : 

"  Be  not  arrogant  because  of  that  which  thou  knowest, 
no  artist  being  in  possession  of  the  perfection  to  which  he 
should  aspire." 

"  If  thou  hast  become  great  after  having  been  little,  harden 


Ii8 


th^  world's  progress. 


not  thy  heart;  thou  art  only  the  steward  of  the  good  things 
of  God." 

"  Let  thy  face  be  cheerful  as  long  as  thou  livest ;  hast 
any  one  come  out  of  the  coffin  after  having  once  entered  it?" 

Before  leaving  this  brief  consideration  of  Egyptian  writ- 
ing, we  should  understand  what  supplied  the  writing  material 
of  Egypt,  The  papyrus  reeds  have  frequently  been  mentioned 
with  no  explanation  of  their  use.  From  this  word  papyrus 
has  been  derived  our  word  paper. 

The  reeds  grew  thick  along  the  sides  of  streams.  Their 
stems  were  three  cornered  and  about  three  inches  wide  at 
the  base.  By  peeling  off  the  outer  tough  green  covering,  a 
white  pith  was  obtained.  Splitting  it  and  laying  strips 
together,  the  edges  lapping,  and  upon  a  surface  so  formed 
placing  a  second  layer  running  the  other  way,  sprinkling  the 
whole  with  the  muddy  Nile  water,  and  putting  it  all  under 
a  press  made  up  the  process  of  manufacturing  a  composition 
which  could  be  cut  into  thin  sheets.  These  afforded  all  the 
writing  material  known  until  the  seventh  century  after  Christ, 
when  prepared  skins,  or  parchment,  were  sometimes  substi- 
tuted. 


EGYPTIAN  SCRIBES 


SOCIAI,    LIFE   IN    EGYPT.  II9 


CHAPTER    XIII. 
Religion  of  Ancient  Egypt. 

The  life  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  was  in  a  great  measure 
controlled  by  their  religious  beliefs.  In  prehistoric  times,  as 
'has  already  been  explained,  each  nome,  or  province,  was 
independent,  and  was  the  home  of  some  tribe  or  tribes.  Just 
as  we  find  the  American  Indian  worshipping  the  stick  that 
was  powerful  enough  to  throw  him  in  the  forest,  so  these 
primitive  people  worshipped  animals  and  trees.  Each  animate 
object  was  conceived  as  possessing  a  soul  or  spirit,  and  this 
spirit  accounted  for  the  qualities  or  characteristics  of  the 
object — were  they  good  or  ill.  A  lion  possessed  savage 
tendencies — hence  they  would  worship  him  and  propitiate  his 
spirit,  and  their  attitude  was  the  same  toward  the  crocodile, 
the  ram,  the  elephant,  and  many  other  animals.  The  date- 
palm  brought  them  great  blessings — therefore  they  would 
worship  the  tree  and  insure  a  continuance  of  these  blessings. 
As  time  went  on,  they  grew  to  worship  gods,  and  to  the  gods 
these  trees  and  animals,  worshipped  earlier  on  their  own 
account,  were  thought  sacred. 

Each  village  and  town  had  its  own  local  deity  and  special 
objects  of  worship,  while  the  nome  as  a  whole  recognized 
gods  of  a  more  general  character.  In  this  way,  each  province 
of  Upper  Egypt — which  was  older  in  civilization  than  the 
Delta — and  various  portions  of  Lower  Egypt,  developed 
religions  complete  and  independent  of  one  another.  After 
many  hundred  years,  when  all  Egypt  was  united  under  one 
government  and  one  king,  the  priests  attempted  to  comprise 
these  various  beliefs  into  a  common  faith,  to  recognize  the 
principal  gods  of  all  the  nomes  in  the  temples,  and  to  evolve 
one  religious  system  from  the  many  local  systems.  This  they 
never  succeeded  in  fully  accomplishing.  They  included  in 
their  lists  some  seventy  deities,  and  harmonized  some  features 
of  worship,  but  each  locality  clung  to  its  ancient  deity  and 
several  different  religions  can  be  traced  throughout  Egyptian 
history. 


120  TH«  world's   progress. 

Like  most  primitive  people,  the  Egyptians  worshipped  the 
sun.  This  god  revealed  himself  in  many  forms,  but  chiefly  as 
Horus,  represented  by  a  falcon,  and  Re  or  Ra,  represented  by  the 
Scarabaeus. 

Osiris  ruled  in  the  kingdom  of  the  dead,  and  he  was  thought 
to  be  just  and  good.  With  his  wife,  Isis,  and  his  son,  Horus, 
he  was  worshipped  throughout  the  land,  while  everywhere  Set 
was  regarded  as  the  principle  of  Evil. 

Qeb  was  the  god  of  Earth  and  Nut,  his  wife,  the  queen 
of  the  heavens,  which  in  this  connection  signifies  the  skies. 
Their  children  were  Osiris,  Isis,  Set,  and  Nebthet  (Nephthys). 
Mat  was  the  goddess  of  truth  and  justice. 

One  finds  similarities  between  some  of  these  divinities  and 
the  divinities  of  the  Greeks — as  for  example.  Nut  reminds  one 
of  Hera,  and  Set  was  feared  as  much  as  Pluto ;  but  it  is  danger- 
ous to  make  these  comparisons,  for  the  religious  conceptions 
of  the  two  nations  were  fundamentally  different. 

The  Egyptians  usually  represented  their  deities  with  human 
bodies  and  the  heads  of  the  animal  sacred  to  each.  So,  for 
example,  Horus  always  has  the  head  of  a  sparrow-hawk; 
Thot,  that  of  an  Ibis,  and  so  on.  The  prominent  feature 
of  this  religion  was  the  veneration  of  animals.  It  was 
believed  that  sometimes  the  god-spirit  took  up  his  abode  within 
certain  animals,  and  for  this  reason  certain  animals  were 
regarded  as  sacred  and  were  therefore,  objects  of  worship. 
Ptah  was  the  god  of  Memphis.  He,  it  was  believed,  took 
the  form  of  the  Apis-bull,  hence  this  bull  was  regarded  as 
sacred. 

"  The  Apis  bull  dwelt  in  a  temple  of  his  own  near  the 
city,  had  his  train  of  attendant  priests,  his  meals  of  the  choicest 
food,  his  grooms  and  currycombers  who  kept  his  coat  clean 
and  beautiful,  his  chamberlains  who  made  up  his  bed,  his 
cup-bearers  who  brought  his  water,  and  on  certain  days  was 
led  in  a  festive  procession  through  the  main  streets  of  the 
town,  so  that  the  inhabitants  might  see  him,  and  come  forth 
from  their  dwellings  and  make  obeisance.  When  he  died 
he  was  carefully  embalmed,  and  deposited,  together  with  mag- 
nificent jewels  and  statuettes  and  vases,  in  a  polished  granite 
sarcophagus,  cut  out  of  a  single  block,  and  weighing  between 
sixty  and  seventy  tons.     The  cost  of  an  Apis  funeral  amounted 


SOCIAL    LIFE   IN    EGYPT.  121 

sometimes,  as  we  are  told,  to  as  much  as  $100,000.  Near 
Memphis  the  number  of  Apis  bulls  buried  in  this  fashion  was 
found  to  be  sixty-four."  * 

In  another  locality  the  crocodile  was  the  object  of  adora- 
tion, because,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Apis  bull,  it  was  believed 
that  some  god  dwelt  within  it. 

"  The  crocodile  was  principally  worshipped  about  Lake 
Moeris.  A  chosen  number  of  these  animals  were  kept  in 
the  temples,  where  they  were  given  elegant  apartments  and 
treated  to  every  luxury  at  public  expense.  Let  us  imagine 
a  crocodile,  fresh  from  a  warm,  sumptuous  bath,  anointed 
with  the  most  precious  ointments  and  perfumed  with  fragrant 
odors;  its  head  and  neck  glittering  with  jeweled  earrings  and 
necklace,  and  its  feet  with  bracelets  wallowing  on  a  rich  and 
costly  carpet  to  receive  the  worship  of  intelligent  human 
b'-ings !  Its  death  was  mourned  as  a  public  calamity ;  its 
body,  wrapped  in  linen,  was  carried  to  the  embalmers,  attended 
by  a  train  of  people  weeping  and  beating  their  breasts  in 
grief;  then  having  been  expensively  embalmed  and  bandaged 
in  gaily  colored  mummy  cloths,  amid  imposing  ceremonies 
it  was  laid  away  in  its  rock  sepulchre." 

For  these  absurdities  the  Egyptians  were  ridiculed  by  other 
nations  of  their  own  times.  Their  adoration  of  animals  led 
to  most  degrading  excesses.  The  cat  was  considered  sacred 
throughout  the  land,  and  punishment  of  death  was  meted  out 
to  persons  injuring  one. 

WORSHIP  OF  THE  NILE. 

Hymn  to  The  Nile. 

Hail  to  thee  O  Nile! 

Thou  shewest  thyself  in  this  land 

Coming  in  peace,  giving  life  to  Egypt ; 

O  Ammon  (thou)  leadest  night  into  day, 

A  leading  that  rejoices  the  heart! 

Overflowing  the  gardens   created  by  Ra. 

Giving  life  to  all  animals ; 

Watering  the  lands  without  ceasing, 


»See  Marietta's  Monuments  of  Upper  Egypt, 


122  THE   WORI^d'S   PROGRESS. 

The  way  of  heaven  descending, 
Lover  of  food,  bestower  of  corn, 
Giving  light  to  every  home,  O  Ptah! 

Bringer  of  food!     Great  Lord  of  provisions, 

, Creator  of  all  good  things! 

Lord  of  terrors  and  of  choicest  joys! 

All  are  combined  in  him. 

He  produceth  grass  for  the  oxen. 

Providing  \ictims  for  every  god. 

The  choice  incense  is  that  which  he  supplies. 

Lord  in  both  regions, 

He  filleth  the  granaries,  enricheth  the  storehouses, 

He  careth  for  the  state  of  the  poor. 

Thou  shinest  in  the  city  of  the  King; 
Then  the  householders  are  satiated  with  good  things, 
The  poor  man  laughs  at  the  lotus. 
All  things  are  perfectly  ordered. 
Every  kind  of  herb  for  thy  children, 
If  food  should  fail, 
.  All  enjoyment  is  cast  on  the  ground, 
The  land  falls  in  weariness. 

O  inundation  of  Nile,  offerings  are  made  to  thee: 

Oxen  are  slain  to  thee : 

Great  festivals  are  kept  for  thee; 

Fowls  of  the  field  are  caught  for  thee. 

Pure  flowers  are  offered  to  thee. 

Offerings  are  made  to  every  god 

As  they  are  made  unto  the  Nile. 

incense  ascends  unto  heaven, 

Oxen,  bulls,  fowls  are  burnt! 

Nile  makes  for  himself  chasms  in  the  South; 

Unknown  is  his  name  in  heaven, 

He  doth  not  manifest  his  forms, 

Vain  are  all  representations! 


SOCIAL   LIFE   IN    EGYPT.  I23 

Shine  forth,  shine  forth,  O  Nile,  shine  forth 
Giving  life  to  his  oxen  by  the  pastures, 
Giving  life  to  men  by  his  oxen, 
Shine  forth  in  glory,  O  Nile! 

More  natural  seems  to  us  the  worship  of  the  Nile.  There 
was  a  certain  beauty  which  we  today  can  still  appreciate  in 
the  festivals  celebrated  each  year  on  the  banks  of  the  rising 
water — which  alone  brought  happiness  and  prosperity  to  all. 
Hapi  was  the  god  of  the  Nile  and  he  was  worshipped  alike 
throughout  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt.  Hymns  were  chanted 
to  him,  as  it  was  believed  he  might  be  importuned  to  rise  high 
enough  to  insure  sufficient  water,  while  if  neglected,  only  a 
partial  flood  might  occur.  One  of  these  hymns  was  some- 
thing like  this : 

Hail  to  thee,  Hapi 

Who  descendeth  upon  earth 

And  giveth  life  unto  Egypt. 

Thou  who  art  hidden  in  the  unknown 

Whose  waters  spread  upon  the  fields 

Which  the  sun-god  hath  created; 

And  giveth  life  to  all  who  are  athirst. 

Thou,  the  Creator  of  corn. 

The  Maker  of  barley 

Do  thy  waters  cease  to  flow, 
Then  are  all  mankind  in  misery; 
When  thou  wanest  in  heaven 
The  gods  and  all  living  things  perish. 

It  would  be  useless  for  us  to  attempt  to  become  familiar 
with  all  the  Egyptian  divinities.  In  the  age  when  people 
conceived  and  worshipped  them,  the  gods  of  a  given  locality 
were  often  unknown  in  a  neighboring  city,  and  the  animals 
held  to  be  sacred  in  one  town  might  be  eaten  as  food  in 
another. 

In  addition  to  all  their  deities,  ancestors  were  worshipped 
by  the  Egyptians,  and  an  altar  was  erected  to  the  departed 
in  every  home. 

It  was  believed  that  the  soul  left  the  body  after  death  in  the 
form  of  a  bird  (ba),  dwelled  apart  from  the  body,  but  would 
often  return  to  it  for  nourishment  and  earthly  comforts.     In 


124  THE  WORIvD'S   progress. 

early  days,  therefore,  food  in  great  abundance  was  placed  in 
the  tomb,  or  the  priests  were  paid  to  provide  daily  food  for  the 
deceased.  Later  it  was  felt  that  the  ka — or  that  portion  of  the 
dead  which  required  nourishment — was  a  mere  shadow,  a  ghost, 
a  phantom,  and  so  pictures  of  things  to  eat  would  satisfy 
as  well  as  the  articles  themselves.  Carrying  out  this  idea, 
the  Egyptians  pictured  upon  tomb  walls  all  stages  of  growing 
grain,  from  the  time  the  seed  dropped  upon  the  mellow  soil 
until  the  ground  flour  was  served  in  loaves  for  the  feast; 
meat  was  shown,  in  all  its  forms:  from  the  ox,  feeding  in 
the  pasture,  to  the  juicy  roasts,  made  ready  for  the  table. 
Such  scenes  as  these  adorned  the  interior  chambers  of  the 
tomb;  upon  them,  it  was  believed,  the  phantom-like  ka  might 
look  and  be  appeased. 

In  a  recently  excavated  tomb,  liquid  honey  was  discovered. 
Meats  too,  encased  for  at  least  3,000  years,  for  the  sustenance 
of  the  deceased,  were  here,  while  a  lengthy  menu  covered  a 
wall,  stating  the  amount  of  food  at  the  disposal  of  the  departed. 
5,006  geese,  so  it  read,  were  at  his  command,  but  the  number 
5,006  was  simply  written  beneath  one  pictured  goose! 

Beds,  chairs,  toilet  articles,  chariots,  and  countless  other 
objects  were  left  in  the  tomb  of  the  well-to-do  Egyptian,  but 
were  placed  apart  from  the  mummy,  which  was  sealed  up 
in  a  private  apartment  by  itself,  while  a  statue  or  image  of 
the  deceased  was  left  near  the  belongings. 

It  was  believed  that  at  death  the  ba — or  soul — went  on 
a  long  journey  to  the  land  where  Osiris  reigned,  and  so  great 
were  the  dangers  of  the  way  that  many  amulets  and  charms 
were  laid  by  the  departed  to  assist  him  in  passing  the  obstacles 
of  the  road  he  must  needs  encounter.  He  who  arrived  at 
last  at  the  land  of  Peace,  where  the  joys  of  life  abided  with- 
out the  sorrows  of  earth,  came  into  the  presence  of  Osiris. 
Here  he  made  a  negative  confession,  similar  to  the  following: 
"  Hail  unto  you,  ye  lords  of  Truth !  hail  to  thee,  great  god, 
lord  of  Truth  and  Justice!  I  have  not  committed  iniquity 
against  men!  I  have  not  oppressed  the  poor!  I  have  not 
laid  labor  upon  any  free  man  beyond  that  which  he  wrought 
for  himself !  I  have  not  starved  any  man !  I  have  not  caused 
any  to  weep!  .  .  .  There  is  no  crime  against  me  in  this 
land  of  the  Double  Truth! " 


Dromos  a.\d  Second  Pylon,  Temple  of  Kafnak. 


SOCIAL  LIFE  IN  EGYPT.  I25 

These  and  many  more  denials  of  sin  were  made  and  it 
sometimes  happened  that  the  confession  was  inscribed  on 
one  wall  of  a  tomb  while  elsewhere  were  shown  captives 
taken  in  war,  slaves  oppressed  by  labor,  and  other  incidents 
in  the  earthly  career  of  the  departed  which  lead  us  to  infer 
that  the  gods  were  supposed  to  be  too  mighty  to  take  notice 
of  most  remarkable  contradictions. 

After  the  confession  of  the  candidate  for  admission  to 
the  realm  of  Osiris,  his  good  and  evil  deeds  were  weighed 
in  a  balance  and  if  his  virtues  outweighed  his  failings,  he 
was  admitted  to  the  land  of  the  departed,  a  counterpart  of 
his  own  Egypt. 

A  vast  priesthood  was  required  to  preside  over  a  religious 
system  so  complex  as  that  of  Egypt  and  the  priests  gained 
great  influence  over  the  people.  The  reason  for  this  is 
apparent  when  we  consider  the  prevailing  ideas  of  the  country. 
The  body  of  the  dead  must  be  preserved,  for  upon  its  preserva- 
tion depended  the  fate  of  the  soul.  To  this  end  the  body  must 
be  properly  embalmed  and  entombed.  The  embalmers  were 
under  the  control  and  supervision  of  the  priests.  Again,  the 
soul  of  the  departed  must  be  assisted  upon  its  perilous  journey 
to  Osiris  by  prayers  said  over  each  finger  and  each  portion 
of  the  body.  These  prayers  could  be  offered  only  by  the 
priests  themselves.  Such  a  condition  as  this  gave  the  priest- 
hood of  Egypt  an  opportunity  to  make  itself  supreme  in  the 
land,  and  this  opportunity  it  was  quick  to  seize  upon. 

Temples. 

Many  questions  concerning  Egyptian  worship  still  remain 
unanswered.  What  part  did  the  citizen  take  in  the  worship 
of  his  national  gods?  What  effect  did  the  worship  of  these 
gods  have  upon  his  life?  We  do  not  know — we  cannot  tell. 
It  appears  that  his  ancestral  gods,  worshipped  at  an  altar  in 
his  own  house,  where  of  first  importance.  Some  understanding 
of  the  temples  and  temple  ceremonies  cannot  fail  to  throw 
light  upon  this  old  religion.  Several  of  the  old  ruined  temples 
may  be  seen  today,  standing  like  forest  trees  which  have  out- 
lived their  neighbors. 

There  is  not  in  all  Egypt  a  temple  perfectly  preserved; 

but  by  locating  here  an  avenue  of  approach,  there,  a  gateway, 
T— 10 


126  THE  WORIJ>'S   PROGRESS. 

finding  courts  in  other  places,  and  halls  and  chapels,  one 
comes  at  length  to  piece  the  whole  together  and  to  get  some 
conception  of  the  original  entirety  of  the  ancient  temple. 

In  Greece  the  people  built  temples  to  their  gods.  In 
Egypt  the  king  built  them.  Offerings  were  brought  to  the 
shrines  of  the  Greek  gods  by  every  citizen  in  the  land.  In 
Egypt  most  of  the  gifts  came  from  the  king.  To  be  sure 
there  were  special  offerings  made  by  all  on  feast  days,  but 
the  king  and  the  priests  were  alone  responsible  for  the  Egyp- 
tian temples;  and  while  throngs  accompanied  processions 
thither  on  days  of  sacred  festival,  there  is  nothing  to  show 
that  they  had  any  part  in  the  ceremonies. 

The  general  plan  of  the  temple  was  this:  an  avenue  of 
approach — varying  in  length,  and  lined  usually  on  either  side 
by  rows  of  sphinxes — led  to  a  gateway,  guarded  by  towers. 
In  the  Old  Empire  these  towers  served  for  defense,  and  seem 
later  to  have  been*  preserved  for  decorative  purposes.  The 
gate  admitted  one  to  a  court,  open  to  the  sky  and  outlined 
by  pillars.  In  direct  line  with  the  gateway  was  the  entrance 
to  a  large  hall,  supported  by  columns  and  lighted  by  small 
openings  under  the  roof.  Within  this  hall  were  celebrated 
the  sacred  festivals.  At  the  end  of  the  hall  a  small  chapel 
was  built  which  contained  an  image  of  the  god  of  the  temple. 
Sometimes  two  other  chapels  were  placed,  one  on  each  side 
of  this,  and  contained  images  of  the  god's  wife  and  son,  or 
his  wife  and  daughter.  The  images  sometimes  represented 
the  animal  sacred  to  the  god,  or,  again,  would  have  a  human 
body  and  merely  the  head  of  the  sacred  animal  or  bird.  Later 
an  image  of  the  god  himself  was  attempted.  The  tiny  room 
or  cell  wherein  these  were  kept  was  called  the  Holy  of  Holies. 
Before  the  door  were  inscribed  these  words:  Four  times 
must  he  purify  himself  who  enters  here. 

Some  temples  were  much  more  elaborate  and  complex  than 
the  simple  one  just  described. 

The  doors  of  these  chapels  were  always  left  sealed,  and 
whenever  they  were  opened,  a  clay  seal  was  affixed.  Having 
purified  himself,  the  priest  would  fill  the  hall  with  the  smoke 
of  incense,  break  the  seal,  open  the  door  and  fall  down,  offer- 
ing incense  and  kissing  the  ground  before  the  image.  Then 
a  hymn  of  praise  was  probably  sung. 


social  life  in  egypt,  127 

Rise  oe  the  Nile. 

"  King  and  Father,  gift  and  giver, 
God  revealed  in  form  of  river, 
Issuing  perfect  and  sublime, 
From  the  fountain-head  of  time; 

"  Whom  eternal  mystery  shroudeth, 
Unapproached,  untraced,  unknown ; 
Whom  the  Lord  of  heaven  encloudeth 
With  the  curtains  of  his  throne; 

'*  From  the  throne  of  heaven  descending, 
Glory,  power,  and  goodness  blending, 
Grant  us,  ere  the  daylight  dies, 
Token  of  thy  rapid  rise." 

Ha,  it  cometh !     Furrowing,  flashing, 
Red  blood  rushing  o'er  brown  breast; 
Peaks  and  ridges,  and  dome  dashing 
Foam  on  foam,  crest  on  crest ! 

But  the  time  of  times  for  wonder 
Is  when  ruddy  sun  goes  under; 
And  the  dust  throws,  half  afraid. 
Silver  shuttles  of  long  shade. 

Opens  then  a  scene,  the  fairest 
Ever  burst  on  human  view ; 
Once  behold,  and  then  comparcst 
Nothing  in  the  world  thereto. 

Every  skiff  a  big  ship  seemeth, 
Every  bush  with  tall  wings  clad; 
Every  man  his  good  brain  deemeth 
The  only  brain  that  is  not  mad. 

'Tis  the  signal  Thebes  hath  waited, 
Libyan  Thebes,  the  hundred-gated ; 
Rouse  and  robe  thee.  River-priest 
For  thy  dedication  feast! 

— Blackmore :     Florilla. 


128  THE  world's  progress. 

Reugious  Ceremonies. 

The  Egyptian  believed  that  his  god  had  needs  similar  to 
those  he  himself  experienced.  Consequently  each  day  the 
god  needed  to  be  clothed  and  fed.  "  The  priest  laid  his  hands 
on  him  (the  image  of  the  god),  he  took  off  the  old  rouge 
and  his  former  clothes,  all  of  course  with  the  necessary  formu- 
lae. He  then  dressed  the  god  in  the  robe  called  the  Nems, 
saying :  '  Come  white  dress !  come  white  dress !  come  white 
eye  of  Horus,  which  proceeds  from  the  town  of  Nechebt. 
The  gods  dress  themselves  with  thee  in  thy  name  Dress,  and 
the  gods  adorn  themselves  with  thee  in  thy  name  Adornment.' 
The  priest  then  dressed  the  god  in  the  great  dress,  rouged 
him,  and  presented  him  with  his  insignia :  the  sceptre,  the 
staff  of  ruler,  and  the  whip,  the  bracelets  and  anklets,  as 
well  as  the  two  feathers  which  he  wore  on  his  head,  because 
'  he  has  triumphed  over  his  enemies,  and  is  more  splendid 
than  gods  or  spirits.'  The  god  required  further  a  collarette 
and  an  amulet,  two  red,  two  green,  and  two  white  bands; 
when  these  had  been  presented  to  him  the  priest  might  then 
leave  the  chapel."  ^ 

Food  and  drink  must  needs  be  placed  daily  on  his  table. 
Lists  of  offerings  made  by  the  Ramesides  have  come  down 
to  us.  One  records  offerings  in  the  temple  as  follows:  each 
v  were  received  3,220  loaves  of  bread,  24  cakes,  144  jugs 
of  beer,  32  geese,  besides  honey,  flowers  and  incense.  This 
food  was  probably  used  to  feed  the  corps  of  assistants  around 
the  temple — the  priests,  servants  and  laborers.  On  feast  days 
the  people  sent  offerings.  A  large  number  of  loaves  of  bread 
are  recorded  on  certain  days;  these  probably  came  from  the 
poorer  people.  Again,  an  overwhelming  number  of  cakes 
and  jugs  of  wine  would  indicate  offerings  from  the  wealthy. 

On  feast  days  the  king  would  himself  perform  part  of 
the  ceremonies,  and  as  a  king  he  would  worship  himself  as 
a  god.  It  sometimes  seems  as  though  the  offerings  and  the 
ceremonies  were  made  more  to  do  honor  to  the  king  than 
to  the  god.  When  Ramses  called  for  plans  for  a  new  grotto 
temple  and  heard  the  reports  of  his  architects,  an  inscription 
tells  us  that  he  answered  them  after  this  fashion :     "  The 

a  Ancient  Egypt,  274. 


SOCIAL   LIFE   IN    EGYPT.  I29 

temple  we  have  in  mind  already  lies  hidden  by  the  gods  in 
yonder  mountain.  You  have  but  to  clear  away  the  waste 
material  and  your  work  is  done.  See  to  it,  however,  that 
ihe  deities  Ra  and  Isis  and  Ptah  and  I  are  all  represented  in 
oecoming  size  on  the  facade  as  guardians — two  on  each  side 
of  the  pylon.  And  mark  you:  see  that  no  god  has  choice 
of  position  over  the  king;  let  the  likeness  and  the  form  of 
them  all  be  mine.  Osiris  must  man  the  eight  piers  which 
support  the  roof,  and  we  four  be  seated  in  the  sanctuary, 
side  by  side." 

Alany  buildings  surrounded  the  temple,  and  the  whole 
was  enclosed  by  a  wall.  Various  buildings  were  needed  in 
order  that  all  the  functions  of  the  temple  could  be  performed. 
On  one  side  was  a  court  where  the  animals  and  birds  intended 
for  sacrifice  were  prepared.  To  the  rear  was  a  kitchen.  The 
priests  often  received  private  revenues  for  providing  food 
for  the  departed.  This  food  as  a  rule  was  prepared  in  the 
kitchens  of  the  temple.  Dwellings  for  the  priests,  and  the 
servants,  store  houses,  granaries,  the  treasure  house,  gardens 
and  an  artificial  lake  lay  within  the  temple  wall.  In  the 
sacred  lake  the  priests  bathed,  and  in  it  they  washed  the 
vessels  pertaining  to  the  sanctuary. 

The  priestly  duties  were  manifold.  Certain  priests  poured 
out  drink  offerings;  others  recited  from  holy  books;  others 
kept  the  annals  of  the  temples.  Their  incomes  were  paid 
in  kind — like  all  other  obligations  of  the  time.  So  many 
ioaves  of  bread,  so  many  jugs  of  wine,  beer  and  cakes  made 
up  their  annual  revenue. 

While  we  may  gain  some  feeble  idea  of  these  places  of 
worship,  built  to  do  honor  to  the  god — and  to  the  king, — 
any  description  of  them  must  necessarily  be  inadequate.  "  We 
may  agree  that  neither  the  boldest  imagination  nor  the  most 
exact  study,  can  enable  us  to  form  an  adequate  conception 
of  the  splendors  of  an  Eg>'ptian  temple  in  its  perfect  state. 
The  vast  space  it  occupied ;  its  lofty  gateways ;  the  long 
avenues  of  sphinxes;  the  glittering  obelisks  and  the  lifelike 
expressions  of  the  monstrous  statues,  form  a  combination  of 
the  most  imposing  architectural  grandeur.  The  aesthethic 
qualities  of  these  structures  cannot  briefly  be  summed  up. 
As  we  ponder  them  we  shall  be  willing  to  acknowledge,  for 


130  THS   world's   progress. 

we  shall  discover,  the  exceptional  constructive  power  of  the 
ancient  architects;  we  shall  see  how  closely  they  followed 
Nature,  and  at  times  drew  as  well  upon  foreign  art,  though 
always  preserving  their  own  principles  of  form.  There  is 
always  one  grand  imaginative  vein  running  through  all  their 
work — which  expresses  the  principal  idea  of  their  faith — 
imperishability. 

"  The  ancient  Egyptians  copied  no  one.  Their  art  sprang 
from  their  surroundings.  What  they  have  left  continues  to 
baffle  us  in  many  ways.  We  may  understand  perspective 
better  than  they  did ;  we  are  their  superiors  in  the  use  of  light 
and  shadow.  We  dare  to  build  higher,  and  we  are  willing 
to  trust  thousands  of  lives  to  walls  which  would  be  wrecked 
if  a  single  Egyptian  column  should  fall  against  them;  but 
we  do  not  yet  understand  how  they  lifted  their  great  masses 
to  such  lofty  places,  nor  do  we  know  where  their  architects 
studied  art."  * 

Little  has  thus  far  been  said  of  the  sphinxes  which 
ordinarily  flanked  the  avenues  leading  up  to  these  temples. 
These  imaginary  creatures  were  carved  in  stone,  and  having 
the  body  of  a  lion,  had  either  the  head  of  a  ram  or  a  human 
head.  When  the  Sphinx  is  mentioned  reference  is  usually 
made  to  the  huge  stone  monument  lying  near  the  Great 
Pyramid.  This  was  a  natural  rock,  to  which  was  given, 
more  or  less  accurately,  the  external  appearance  of  that  mytho- 
logical animal.  The  head  was  sculptured;  the  body  was 
sculptured;  the  body  was  formed  of  the  rock  itself,  filled  out 
where  necessary,  by  rather  clumsy  masonry  of  limestone.  The 
total  height  of  the  Sphinx  is  65  feet.  The  ear  measures  6  feet 
5  inches;  the  nose,  5  feet  10  inches;  the  mouth,  7  feet  8  inches. 
Its  ponderous  human  face,  grave  in  its  eternal  repose,  rising 
in  the  midst  of  desert  wastes,  has  been  a  great  puzzle  to  people 
for  thousands  of  years.  It  was  probably  hewn  out  of  the  rock 
as  a  symbol  of  the  power  of  some  Pharaoh  of  the  Pyramid-age. 
The  sphinxes  which  lined  approaches  to  the  temples  were  of 
course  much  smaller  than  this,  and  were  carved  merely  for 
decorative  purposes.  An  Egyptian  god  was  given  the  image  of 
the  sphinx,  and  whether  it  was  in  honor  of  him,  or  merely 

'Edward  Wilson,  Scribner,  Oct.  '88. 


SOCIAI,  U?E  IN  EGYPT.  I3I 

because  the  symbol  was  a  favorite  one,  that  so  many  of  these 
mystic  animals  were  used,  is  not  known. 

A  final  word  regarding  the  faith  which  prompted  the  build- 
ing of  the  Egyptian  temples  should  perhaps  be  added.  We  hear 
much  about  the  absurd  and  corrupt  side  of  the  Egyptian  relig- 
ion, but  few  have  taken  the  trouble  to  acquaint  themselves  with 
its  brighter  side.  Our  ideas  on  the  subject  have  been  determined 
largely  by  the  writings  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  who  knew 
only  the  last  decadent  period  of  Egyptian  history.  The  decipher- 
ment of  the  hieroglyphs  has  enabled  us  to  study  the  contem- 
porary documents  and  inscriptions,  and  as  a  result  the  religious 
ideas  developed  by  the  Egyptians  have  not  only  aroused  our 
deepest  interest,  but  are  commanding  our  admiration. 

Like  all  other  peoples  in  the  same  stage  of  culture,  the 
primitive  Egyptians  feared  and  tried  to  render  harmless,  and 
perchance  useful,  the  powers  of  nature,  always  mysterious 
because  not  understood.  Thus  arose  the  worship  of  natural 
phenomena,  plants,  animals  and  the  dead.  If  we  remember 
that  among  our  own  ignorant  masses  many  of  the  religious 
ideas  of  our  primitive  forefathers  survive  in  what  we  call  super- 
stition, we  will  not  judge  the  common  people  of  Egypt  for  hold- 
ing fast  to  the  beliefs  of  their  ancestors,  for  it  is  true  that  they 
did  so  all  through  Egypt's  long  history.  Hence  the  ridicule 
of  the  Greeks. 

But  there  is  another  side  to  the  picture.  No  people  has 
ever  developed  a  culture  like  that  of  the  Egyptians  without 
also  reaching  a  purer  conception  of  God.  Way  back  in  the  Fifth 
dynasty  we  find  the  beginnings  of  a  monotheistic  tendency  in 
the  religion  of  Egypt.  Indeed  even  earlier  the  priests  of  Heli- 
opolis  had  taught  the  idea  of  the  unity  of  the  deity  who  mani- 
fested himself  in  the  creative  energy  of  the  Sun.  The  Pharaohs 
of  the  Fifth  dynasty  took  up  the  cult  of  Re  (or  Ra)  as  this  god 
was  called,  raising  mighty  obelisks  on  the  edge  of  the  desert 
back  of  Memphis,  before  which  stood  altars  of  alabaster  under 
the  open  sky:  for  this  god  could  not  be  represented  by  any 
image  and  consequently  needed  no  temple,  no  house  of  god. 

As  time  went  on  this  idea  of  the  unity  of  the  deity — largely, 
it  is  true,  as  a  "mystery"  understood  only  by  the  priests  and 
other  "initiated"  ones,  spread  over  the  whole  of  Egypt.  As  a 
result  the  local  deities,  no  matter  what  their  origin,  came  to  be 


132  THE  world's  progress. 

regarded  as  manifestations  of  the  one  god  Re,  whose  name  was 
added  to  those  of  the  local  gods.  We  are  all  familiar  with 
Amon  of  Thebes.  This  god,  whose  origin  is  very  obscure,  was 
of  course  a  local  deity,  and  when  Thebes  became  the  capital 
of  the  Empire,  was  raised  to  the  kingship  of  all  the  gods.  But 
it  will  be  observed  that  to  do  this,  the  priests  felt  it  necessary 
to  identify  him  with  Re  and  to  speak  of  him  henceforth  not 
as  Amon,  but  as  Amon-Re. 

But  this  was  not  a  step  forward.  The  priests  of  Re  had 
taught  that  god  is  one  and  might  be  worshiped  anywhere.  It 
was  not  even  necessary  to  have  temples.  When,  however,  such 
a  local  divinity  as  Amon  of  Thebes  was  identified  with  Re,  as 
one  of  this  god's  manifestations,  he  received  all  the  attributes 
of  the  one  god,  but  at  the  same  time  remained  god  of  Thebes 
and  the  priests  never  raised  any  theological  objections  when  the 
Pharaohs  erected  the  mighty  temples  of  that  city  for  the  glory 
of  their  god  and  the  perpetuation  of  their  own  deeds.  Indeed  the 
Pharaohs  regarded  themselves  as  his  viceroys  on  earth.  The 
attempted  "reform"  of  Amen-hotep  IV.,  which,  as  we  saw,  was 
so  disastrous  for  his  line,  was  largely  an  attempt  to  restore  the 
purer  worship  of  the  Sun-god,  not  as  Re  but  as  Aton.  But  the 
priests  of  Amon-Re,  who  had  already  looked  with  disfavor, 
which  they  dared  not  express,  upon  the  claims  of  the  earlier 
Pharaohs  of  the  Eighteenth  dynasty — Amen-hotep  III.  during 
his  lifetime  had  gone  so  far  as  to  build  a  temple  in  which  he 
worshipped  his  own  ka,  broke  with  Amen-hotep  IV.,  were  perse- 
cuted by  him  after  he  had  removed  to  his  new  city,  but  in  the 
end  were  able  to  overthrow  the  dynasty  and  place  upon  the 
throne  kings  who  would  recognize  them  as  the  intermediaries 
between  god  and  man.  In  the  end  they  themselves  seized  the 
throne — and  it  was  not  long  before  Egyptian  history  was  at  an 
end. 

"God  is  the  Eternal  One.    He  is  eternal  andlnfinite  ;  and  en- 

dureth  forever  and  ever.  He  hath  endured  for  countless 

ages  and  He  shall  endure  to  all  eternity. 
"No  man  knoweth  how  to  know  Him.     His  name  remaineth 

hidden.      His  name  is  a  mystery  unto    His    children. 

His  names  are  innumerable ;  they  are  manifold  and  none 

knoweth  their  number." 

'^Trans.  from  Brugsch;  quoted  in  Budge,  Egyptian  Religion. 


SOCIAL   LIFE  IN    EGYPT.  I33 


CHAPTER   XIV. 
Art  and  Decoration. 

During  the  Old  Empire  certain  rules  regulating  drawing 
were  invented  which  were  adhered  to  throughout  the  history 
of  Egypt.  The  stiff,  unnatural  appearance  of  all  Egyptian 
figures  was  due  to  strict  observance  of  these  rules,  which 
became  binding  upon  artists  and  prevented  any  perfection 
of  art  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile. 

Egyptian  painting  consisted  of  mere  outline  sketching. 
The  human  body  was  first  entirely  drawn;  then  clothing  was 
added.  The  artists  knew  no  more  of  anatomy  than  did  the 
physicians.  They  did  not  even  follow  each  his  own  ideas, 
but  there  was  one  established  way  of  drawing  the  head,  the 
arms,  the  limbs,  and  all  felt  obliged  to  hold  to  this  conven- 
tional method.  The  extended  arms  show  no  elbows,  the 
fingers  no  joints.  An  endeavor  to  draw  the  body  in  profile 
resulted  in  portions  of  it  facing  the  spectator,  other  parts  in 
profile,  and  still  other  sharing  the  characteristics  of  both 
positions.  For  many  )ears  the  human  figure,  animals  and 
birds  could  only  extend  the  foot  or  arm — in  case  of  a  person — 
farthest  away  from  the  spectator,  and  each  figure  must  be 
shown  with  the  right  side  to  the  front.  In  course  of  time 
artists  drew  people  of  the  lower  classes  with  more  freedom, 
but  it  would  have  been  deemed  disrespectful  to  have  portrayed 
those  of  high  rank  in  any  but  the  conventional  positions. 
Thus,  in  a  picture  of  a  noble  being  served  by  a  slave,  the 
latter  might  be  drawn  in  a  natural  pose,  while  the  noble  still 
retained  the  stiff,  grotesque  position  of  early  times.  Again, 
the  king  was  given  colossal  proportions,  to  indicate  his  power 
and  strength,  while  children  may  be  distinguished  only  by 
their  tiny  forms. 

Side  by  side  with  this  conventional  school  of  art  there 
developed  a  realistic  school  that  exercised  greater  freedom 
with  the  human  body.  Tomb  pictures  remain  wherein  persons 
are  shown  with  their  backs  to  the  spectator,  and  in  many  posi- 
tions not  permissible  according  to  established  rules.     However, 


134  THE  world's  progress. 

these  paintings  are  invariably  in  the  tombs  of  the  lower  classes. 
It  would  not  have  been  deemed  fitting  that  such  freedom 
be  used  in  decorating  the  tombs  of  nobles,  or  of  persons  of 
high  social  standing.  Artists  of  this  school  seem  to  have 
been  in  disfavor  in  ancient  Egypt.  To  be  sure,  in  the  matter 
of  portraying  scenes  where  captives,  slaves  or  the  humble 
people  were  gathered,  artists  of  the  conventional  school  drew 
these  with  considerable  degree  of  freedom  and  ease.  In  the 
same  picture  the  king,  or  noble,  or  high  official  was  represented 
according  to  the  established  custom. 

All  Egyptian  drawing  of  human  figures,  birds  and  animals 
is  plain,  and  it  is  possible  for  any  one  today  to  read  the  stories 
of  long  series  of  tomb  pictures — studying  them  out,  one  by 
one.  However,  when  it  came  to  representing  a  temple,  a 
house,  or  a  garden,  the  desire  to  show  every  portion  of  it 
resulted  in  some  confusion.  The  artist  was  in  doubt  as  to 
how  to  portray  it  all.  "  In  treating  such  an  important  and 
complex  object  he  wished  if  possible  to  show  every  part  of 
it;  he  therefore  did  not  draw  the  house  from  the  front  nor 
from  the  side,  but  made  a  picture  of  both  sides  together,  and 
when  the  house  had  an  upper  story  with  three  chambers,  he 
put  these  three  rooms  close  by  also.  He  considered  his  duty 
accomplished  when  he  had  placed  all  the  details  before  the 
spectator,  but  he  did  not  care  whether  the  spectator  under- 
stood how  these  details  fitted  together. 

"  We  have  to  face  another  difficulty  in  order  to  comprehend 
these  pictures ;  the  Egyptian  artist  has  no  sense  of  proportion 
between  the  different  parts  of  the  representation.  If,  for 
instance,  the  king  is  standing  in  one  of  the  rooms  of  the  build- 
ing in  question,  our  artist  would,  regardless  of  truth,  draw 
that  room  ten  times  as  large  as  all  the  others  together,  and 
even  in  one  picture  he  frequently  changes  his  standard  of 
measurement."  * 

All  pictures  were  painted,  some  only  in  outline,  some 
entirely.  The  interiors  of  tombs  were  made  to  assume  a 
gay  appearance  since  tomb  colors  were  always  bright.  Red, 
the  color  of  the  sun,  and  blue,  the  sky  reflected  in  the  Nile, 
were  thought  to  be  sacred. 

Sculpture  served  two  needs:  it  furnished  statues  of  the 

» Erman :  Life  in  Ancient  Egypt,  174. 


SOCIAL   LIFE   IN    1:GYPT.  135 

dead  for  relatives  to  worship,  and  statues  of  the  kings  and 
gods,  with  the  animals  sacred  to  each,  for  the  ornamentation 
of  the  temples.  Thus  the  scope  of  the  sculptor  was  limited 
in  the  beginning.  Furthermore,  the  proportion,  form,  color 
and  expression  of  every  statue  was  lixed  by  laws  prescribed 
by  the  priests.  The  aim  of  the  artist  was  in  every  case  to 
show  absolute  repose. 

When  we  realize  that  many  of  the  surviving  monuments 
were  chiseled  from  granite  as  hard  as  iron,  upon  which  the 
artist  could  work  with  only  a  small  metal  chisel,  we  view  them 
as  monuments  of  the  artist's  untiring  patience,  as  well  as  of 
kingly  greatness  and  statues  of  the  gods.  These  artists  also 
knew  how  to  make  good  use  of  poor  material.  In  soft  lime- 
stone their  task  was  easier ;  scenes  were  frequently  cut  in  this, 
covered  with  stucco  and  then  painted.  Inexpensive  statues 
were  often  made  in  this  way. 

Art  seems  at  first  to  have  taken  rapid  strides  in  Egypt, 
but  after  reaching  a  certain  point,  it  was  prevented  by  estab- 
lished laws,  enforced  by  the  priesthood,  from  going  farther. 
So  it  deteriorated.  Unfortunately  we  know  little  of  the  artists 
who  wrought  these  works  and  nothing  of  the  training  they 
received. 

Decorative  art,  as  developed  by  the  dwellers  on  the  Nile, 
has  perhaps  greater  interest  for  the  modern  artist  than  their 
paintings  or  statuary.  The  modern  conventional  school  of 
decorative  art  finds  miuch  to  copy  and  adapt  from  patterns 
which  survive  in  Egypt.  In  the  first  place,  the  hieroglyphics 
were  in  themselves  decorative.  They  were  often  used  as 
friezes,  and  never  do  we  find  them  cut  across  figures,  as  was 
the  case  in  Assyria.  Among  designs  commonly  called  geo- 
metrical, but  in  the  beginning  the  representation  of  something 
familiar,  the  zigzag  line  was  popular.  A  double  zigzag 
formed  little  squares,  and  by  various  arrangements,  many  com- 
binations were  possible.  The  scroll  was  also  a  favorite  decora- 
tion. There  was  an  old  legend  to  the  effect  that  the  spiral 
represented  the  wanderings  of  the  soul,  but  just  what  con- 
nection existed  between  the  two — if  indeed  there  had  ever 
been  one — ^was  lost  in  distant  ages. 

Coils,  hooks,  links  and  endless  scrolls  were  used,  and  the 
fret    patterns    were   but    modifications    of    the    spiral.     The 


136  THK  world's  progress. 

checkered  design  was  originally  worked  out  by  the  shepherds 
and  herdsmen  who  wove  baskets  and  mats  of  rushes.  The 
source  of  one  of  the  earliest  imitations  was  the  feather,  with 
its  variety  of  forms.  Only  a  few  flowers  were  copied.  The 
lotus,  papyrus,  daisy,  convolvulus,  vine  and  palm  were  the 
only  ones  used  to  any  great  extent.  By  far  the  most  popular 
of  these  was  the  lotus.  This  water  lily  has  been  worshipped 
in  many  countries.  The  Egyptians  did  not  regard  it  as  a 
national  flower — by  no  means.  It  was  considered  the  emblem 
of  immortality. 

"  The  lotus  is  the  symbol  of  *  life,'  ...  of  resurrec- 
tion. Bouquets  of  it  were  presented  to  guests  at  funerals.  It 
was  sometimes  called  the  symbol  of  the  Sun.  *  The  solar 
significance  of  the  lotus  is  elementary  and  most  important.  A 
text  reads:  The  Sun,  which  was  from  the  beginning,  rises 
like  a  hawk  from  the  midst  of  its  lotus  bed.  When  the  doors 
of  its  leaves  open  in  sapphire-colored  brilliancy,  it  has  divided 
the  night  from  the  day.' 

"  A  confessional  chapter  of  the  Book  of  the  Dead  closes 
with  the  words:  I  am  a  pure  lotus,  issue  of  the  field  of  the 
Sun.  .  .  .  The  Egyptian  idea  of  the  resurrection  and  of 
a  future  life  was  connected  with  a  worship  of  the  creative  and 
reproductive  forces  of  nature,  which  were  conceived  and  wor- 
shipped as  solar  in  character  and  origin.  It  is  the  supposed 
passage  of  the  sun  at  night  through  a  lower  world,  during 
its  return  to  the  dawn  of  a  following  day  which  makes  Osiris 
— the  Sun  at  night — the  God  of  the  lower  world  and  of  the 
dead,  hence  himself  represented  as  a  mummy.  As  the  God  of 
the  resurrection,  his  special  and  emphatic  character,  he  repre- 
sents the  creative  energy  of  the  Sun-god.  Hence,  the  lotus 
as  attribute  of  Osiris  is  at  once  a  symbol  of  the  sun,  of  the 
resurrection,  and  of  creative  forces  and  power.  Since  the 
doctrine  of  a  future  life  and  a  belief  in  a  spirit  world  were 
ever  present  to  the  Egyptian  mind,  we  cannot  too  strongly 
insist  on  the  funeral  symbolism  of  the  lotus." ' 

This  brief  explanation  of  the  lotus'  significance  given  by 
one  who  has  made  a  detailed  study  of  this  particular  Egyptian 
symbol,  helps  us  to  understand  its  universal  use.  It  was  pictured 
with   the   gods,    given    as    offerings   to   them,    employed   as 

*  Goodyear:  Grammar  of  the  Lotus. 


SOCIAL   LIFE   IN    EGYPT. 


137 


capitals  for  columns,  and  had  many  significant  uses.  It  has 
been  suggested  that  the  bright  yellow  ovary  stigmas  of  this 
water-lily,  with  its  rayed  appearance,  might  have  been  thought 
a  symbol  of  the  sun.  As  time  went  on,  the  flower  developed 
into  a  monstrosity,  and  became  so  conventionalized  that  it  has 
been  difficult  in  many  cases  to  determine  what  the  artist  intended 
to  represent. 

The  grape  vine,  with  its  fruit,  was  a  popular  decoration. 
Ceilings  were  often  painted  golden  yellow,  with  vine  leaves 
and  bunches  of  grapes  hanging  down.  In  glazed  work  grapes, 
convolvulus  and  thistle  were  used.  Golden  stars  on  a  blue- 
black  background  found  favor  as  a  ceiling  decoration. 

In  prehistoric  times,  ideas  of  ornamentation  were  often 
gained  in  curious  ways.  Jars  of  pottery  were  sometimes  tied 
with  a  string  to  support  them  while  drying.  The  string 
naturally  left  an  impression  in  the  clay.  This  suggested  the 
notion  of  twisting  the  string  and  so  obtaining  not  only  an 
impression  but  a  pattern.  From  this  very  illustration  we 
may  realize  how  completely  many  origins  of  decoration  have 
been  lost  in  obscurity. 


CEILING  DECORATION. 


'38  TH^  WORU)'S  PROGRESS. 


CHAPTER   XV. 
Tombs  and  Buriai^  Customs 

We  have  seen  in  a  former  chapter  that  the  Egyptians 
believed  one  to  be  composed  of  three  parts :  his  earthly  body, 
his  soul,  or  ba,  and  his  ka,  the  ghostlike  phantom  that  grew 
up  with  him  in  life  and  after  death  experienced  the  same  needs 
that  he  had  known  while  living.  All  three  parts  were  essential 
to  the  existence  of  any  one  of  them.  On  this  account  the 
Egyptians  made  every  effort  to  perpetuate  the  body  and  to 
provide  necessities  for  the  ka,  lest  the  soul  should  wither  up 
and  be  no  more.  Granting  the  truth  of  these  beliefs,  all  that 
the  Nile  dwellers  did  in  consequence  of  a  faith  in  them  was 
logical  and  natural. 

When  an  Egyptian  was  ill,  a  physician  and  one  skilled  in 
magic  were  summoned.  They  did  what  they  could  to  restore 
him.  When  their  efforts  failed,  they  usually  discovered  that 
from  his  birth  it  had  been  decreed  that  he  would  meet  with 
an  early  death,  and  in  this  ingenious  way  they  maintained 
their  influence  unimpaired. 

Upon  the  death  of  a  relative,  all  the  women  of  the  house 
rushed  into  the  street  with  disheveled  hair,  shouting  loud 
lamentations.  In  this  way  their  loss  was  made  public.  Then 
they  returned  and  the  body  was  sent  to  the  embalmer. 

Three  methods  of  embalming  were  commonly  employed. 
The  most  costly  method  involved  seventy  days  and  absorbed 
perhaps  the  total  income  of  the  year,  unless  the  family  was 
wealthy.  The  second  was  less  costly  and  required  less  time; 
finally  there  was  a  comparatively  inexpensive  method  which 
had  to  satisfy  the  poor. 

The  vital  organs  and  those  parts  of  the  body  hardest  to 
preserve  were  removed.  This  was  strictly  necessary  accord- 
ing to  later  Egyptian  ideas,  yet  so  dreadful  did  they  regard 
any  mutilation  of  the  body  that  the  men  who  performed  this 
task  were  intensely  hated  and  considered  as  unclean.  They 
were  not  allowed  to  mingle  with  other  classes,  nor  could  one 


SOCIAL  UI?E  IN    EGYPT  I39 

rise  out  of  his  class.  When  they  had  done  their  work,  they 
were  stoned  away  from  the  house. 

The  body  was  now  put  into  a  bath  of  chemicals  to  remain 
for  many  days.  When  at  last  it  was  taken  out,  it  was  filled 
with  linen  and  sweet  smelling  powders  and  made  to  look  as 
lifelike  as  possible.  Then  it  was  wrapped  in  linen  bands,  the 
quality  of  the  linen  used  depending  upon  the  purse  of  the 
family. 

"  Each  separate  limb  of  the  deceased  was  dedicated  to  a 
particular  divinity  by  the  aid  of  holy  oils,  charms  and 
sentences ;  a  specially  prepared  cloth  was  wrapped  round  each 
muscle,  every  drug  and  bandage  owed  its  origin  to  some 
divinity,  and  the  confusion  of  sounds,  of  disguised  figures, 
and  of  various  perfumes,  had  a  stupefying  effect  on  those  who 
visited  this  chamber.  It  need  not  be  said  that  the  whole 
embalming  establishment  and  its  neighborhood  was  enveloped 
in  a  cloud  of  powerful  resinous  fumes,  of  sweet  attar,  of  last- 
ing musk,  and  of  pungent  spices." 

Prayers  and  magical  charms  were  said,  scarabs  and  amu- 
lets enclosed,  and  finally  the  body  was  placed  in  a  coffin  so 
constructed  that  it  would  stand  upright,  as  though  the  person 
were  standing  erect.  It  was  then  taken  home,  and  lamenta- 
tions were  made  for  some  days.  These  finally  gave  way  to 
festivals.  Banquets  were  held  in  honor  of  the  mummy,  which 
was  placed  near  the  table  and  offered  portions  of  food.  Some- 
times mummies  were  kept  in  the  home  for  a  long  time,  and 
were  worshipped  with  the  household  gods.  When  at  length 
the  day  for  burial  came,  the  family  and  friends  accompanied 
the  body  across  the  Nile  to  the  Necropolis.  They  took  offerings 
with  them, — food,  furniture,  toilet  articles,  and  some  litera- 
ture— certainly  some  pages  from  the  Book  of  the  Dead.  All 
the  way  across  the  river,  the  women  wept.  That  the  exhibi- 
tion of  grief  might  be  sufficient,  wailing  women  were  hired 
to  increase  the  lamentations. 

Seeing  the  sun  which  they  worshipped  disappear  each 
night  in  the  west,  the  Egyptians  grew  to  think  that  it  went 
to  a  mysterious  country,  the  land  of  Osiris.  In  course  of 
time  they  located  the  land  of  the  Blest  in  the  west,  and  where- 
ever  possible,  placed  their  tombs  facing  the  west — ^the  direc- 
tion  which   the  departed   took   for   his   long   journey.     All 


I40  THS  world's  progress. 

through  the  river  ride  the  women  cried :  **'  To  the  West ;  to 
the  West!" 

Upon  reaching  the  place  of  burial,  the  priest  performed 
certain  ceremonies.  Then  the  mummy  in  its  coffin,  and  the 
jars  containing  the  vital  organs,  were  sealed  up  in  the  chamber 
prepared  to  receive  them. 

There  were  always  three  essential  parts  to  an  Egyptian 
tomb:  the  chapel,  or  room  used  by  the  relatives  to  worship 
the  deceased  and  bring  him  offerings ;  the  sepulchral  chamber 
which  contained  the  mummy;  and  the  serdab,  or  secret  cell, 
where  images  of  the  deceased  were  sealed  up  for  the  ka  to 
look  upon,  since  the  features  of  the  earthly  body  were  now 
changed  by  death.  This  secret  chamber  was  connected  by 
a  small  aperture  with  the  chapel,  in  order  that  the  smoke  of 
burning  incense  and  proffered  prayers  might  be  the  more 
easily  experienced  by  the  Ka.  On  the  west  wall  of  the  tomb 
was  the  stela,  or  a  false  door,  upon  which  was  engraved  the 
name  of  the  deceased,  his  parentage,  titles,  and  a  record  of 
the  offerings  made  to  his  ka.  In  early  times  offerings  alone 
were  made  with  no  record  of  them,  but  as  the  people  grew 
more  enlightened,  they  realized  that  a  time  must  come  when 
even  the  best  known  would  be  forgotten  and  neglected.  There- 
fore they  conceived  the  notion  of  enumerating  the  articles  of 
food  contributed,  believing  that  the  ka  would  look  upon  the 
record  and  be  satiated  through  the  ages. 

Compared  to  the  earthly  abode,  which  was  temporary,  the 
tomb  was  eternal;  hence  the  care  that  was  lavished  upon  the 
tomb  by  the  Egyptians.  While  yet  young,  a  man  began  to 
build  his  final  resting  place.  If  he  died  before  it  was  com- 
pleted, some  relative  supervised  its  completion,  but  in  most 
cases  tombs  left  thus  unfinished  show  signs  of  hasty  con- 
clusion. The  survivor  was  chiefly  interested  in  his  own  tomb, 
and  could  give  but  passing  attention  to  that  of  the  departed. 

In  the  Old  Empire,  tombs  were  constructed  of  brick 
masonry.  The  mummy  was  placed  some  distance  below  the 
brick  work  which  was  elevated  a  few  feet  above  the  ground. 
During  the  Middle  Empire,  grotto  tombs  came  into  favor. 
These  were  hewed  out  of  the  living  rock.  A  large  excava- 
tion was  made  and  chambers  were  sometimes  formed  b<" 
raasonrv.  sometimes  hollowed  from  the  rock  itself.     It  was 


SOCIAL   LIFE   IN    EGYPT.  I4I 

during  this  period  that  pictures  of  food  offerings  were  made 
in  addition  to  the  food  formerly  offered  alone.  During  the 
New  Empire  tombs  were  generally  cut  in  rocks,  and  now  it 
became  customary  to  have  the  heart  removed  from  the  deceased 
and  placed  in  a  jar.  The  idea  of  reward  and  punishment  was 
emphasized.  "  From  the  calm  assurance  of  purely  material 
happiness  which  the  earliest  Egyptian  loved  to  dwell  on,  there 
developed  a  keener  sense  of  the  trials  through  which  the  soul 
must  pass,  together  with  a  higher  ideal  of  the  future  life,  a 
strong  conviction  of  the  moral  qualities  and  acts  essential  to 
the  justification  of  the  individual.  Later  this  spiritual  degen- 
erated into  a  reliance  upon  ritual  and  formulas  in  a  merely 
magical  sense,"  * 

The  nature  of  the  burial  depended  upon  the  means 
of  the  family.  The  middle  class  interment  was  less  pre- 
tentious than  that  of  the  noble,  and  the  poor  appropriated 
some  old,  neglected  tomb,  or  paid  for  space  in  a  public  tomb. 
Even  in  such  cases,  some  offerings  were  made.  The  burial 
of  royalty  was  splendid,  as  tombs  recently  discovered  in  the 
Valley  of  the  Kings  have  attested.  Furniture,  receptacles, 
toilet  articles — even  a  boat  and  a  chariot  were  in  some  cases 
provided. 

In  the  tombs  of  the  wealthy  were  enclosed  little  Images 
of  servants,  or  '*  answerers."  To  the  unimaginative  Egyptian, 
the  future  world  could  only  be  a  place,  like  his  own  Egypt, 
where  he  would  sow  and  reap,  under  conditions  most  favor- 
able. Water  would  be  plentiful,  and  work  would  be  so  easy 
that  it  would  be  a  joy  to  perform  it.  This  satisfied  the  masses, 
who  knew  only  how  to  reap  and  sow.  But  the  wealthy  had 
not  been  accustomed  to  cultivate  the  soil  in  this  life  and  were 
not  pleased  with  the  prospect  of  doing  so  through  countless 
ages.  Lest  such  menial  tasks  be  required  of  them  in  the  realm 
of  Osiris  they  had  with  them  these  images  of  servants — 
these  answerers — who  might  respond  when  they  were  called 
upon :  "  Here  am  I,  thy  servant."  Thus  the  noble  would 
have  his  work  performed  by  others,  as  it  had  always  been. 

Amulets  and  scarabs  were  also  deposited  with  the  mummy. 
The  amulets  were  charms  supposed  to  bring  good  luck,  and  the 
scarabs  had  a  deeper  significance.     The  word  scarab  means 

J  Blimmer :  Essays  on  History,  Religion  and  Art  of  Ancient  Egypt. 
I— 11 


142  TH^   WORI.D'S   PROGRKSS. 

beetle.  A  certain  kind  of  beetle  deposited  its  eggs  in  the 
sand.  From  the  earth,  in  course  of  time,  a  fully  developed 
beetle  would  come  forth.  The  Egyptians,  who  knew  nothing 
of  insect  life,  believed  the  beetle,  long  since  dead,  had  the 
power  of  restoring  itself  to  life  anew.  Hence  the  scarab  was 
an  emblem  of  the  resurrection  and  immortality.  Just  as  the 
cross  is  a  symbol  dear  to  the  hearts  of  Christians,  so,  to  the 
followers  of  the  Egyptian  religion,  the  scarab  was  significant. 
It  was  made  of  various  kinds  of  stone,  variously  colored,  and 
was  worn  by  the  Egyptian  during  life,  and  buried  with  him  at 
death.  During  periods  when  religious  revivals  were  strong, 
large  numbers  of  these  emblems  were  produced;  during  ages 
when  greater  indifference  to  religious  matters  were  shown, 
fewer  seem  to  have  been  made.  As  little  Greek  vases  have  been 
found  in  all  lands  where  Greek  merchantmen  went,  so  the 
Egyptian  trade  of  antiquity  can  be  traced  by  the  little  scarabs. 
Large  collections  of  them  have  been  made  in  recent  years,  and 
many  are  exhibited  today  in  museums. 

In  the  New  Empire,  when  it  became  necessary  to  remove 
the  heart  of  the  deceased,  a  sacred  scarab  was  substituted  in 
its  place.  The  idea  prompting  such  action  was  that  the  heart 
was  sinful,  and  if  removed,  might  not  be  able  to  testify  against 
its  owner.  The  scarab,  being  a  symbol  of  faith,  might  be  of 
some  assistance. 

A  copy  of  the  Book  of  the  Dead  was  supplied  the  deceased 
because  it  contained  a  list  of  the  dangers  his  soul  would 
have  to  meet  in  journeying  to  the  abode  of  Osiris.  The 
topography  of  the  future  world  was  included  and  all  invoca- 
tions to  be  uttered  at  different  stages  of  the  progress  were 
given.  Only  with  a  perfect  knowledge  of  all  these  things  could 
the  soul  hope  to  reach  the  land  of  the  blest.  Advice  was 
given  him  about  meeting  the  forty-two  judges  of  the  western 
world,  who  judged  him  for  forty-two  sins.  If  his  good  deeds 
outweighed  his  shortcomings,  he  remained  forever  with  Osiris ; 
otherwise  he  was  transformed  into  some  unclean  animal,  and 
never  knew  the  joys  of  eternal  life. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  some  200,000,000  people  died 
in  Upper  Egypt  during  its  active  history  and  found  a  resting 
place  in  the  favorite  strip  of  desert  less  than  450  miles  in 
length.     Of  course  only  the  most  substantial  of  the  tombs 


SOCIAIv   IJFK   IN    KGYPT. 


143 


are  preserved.    The  dryness  of  the  country  has  helped  to  pre- 
serve ancient  monuments. 

It  is  small  wonder  that  to  the  very  poor,  whose  huts  have 
always  been  in  the  Necropolis — the  wealth  concealed  in  tombs 
has  always  been  a  strong  temptation.  Records  reach  through 
the  Middle  and  New  Empires  testifying  that  robbers  pillaged 
tombs  for  jewelry  and  gold,  and  today  the  Arab  traffics  con- 
stantly in  the  spoils  of  the  tombs — above  which,  in  many 
cases,  he  lives. 


THE  FUNERAL  PROCESSION  :      THE  WEAPONS  AND  JEWELS. 


144  ,       THE  world's  progress. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
Excavations  in  Egypt. 

We  have  spoken  frequently  of  recent  discoveries  in  Egypt, 
and  of  objects  found  within  old  tombs.  The  question  naturally 
arises :  Who  makes  these  discoveries,  and  under  what  circum- 
stances are  the  secrets  of  the  tombs  revealed  ? 

Modern  excavations  in  Egypt  are  of  recent  date.  In  1798 
the  military  expedition  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte  drew  attention 
to  Egyptian  monuments.  One  of  his  soldiers,  excavating  for 
some  fortifications  in  the  delta,  discovered  a  stone  covered  with 
an  inscription,  and  this  was  preserved.  Being  found  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Rosetta  river,  it  was  called  the  Rosetta  stone. 
The  stone  had  been  inscribed  during  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  III., 
a  Greek  king.  Because  some  of  his  subjects  in  Egypt  were 
Greeks  and  some  Egyptians,  he  had  caused  the  decree  to  be 
inscribed  (1)  in  Greek,  (2)  in  hieroglyphics,  (3)  in  demotic. 
The  Greek  sentences  were  easily  read,  and  since  it  seemed 
probable  that  the  other  writing  simply  repeated  the  decree, 
scholars  set  to  work  to  decipher  it.  By  1832  they  had  prepared 
an  Egyptian  grammar  and  vocabulary. 

The  earliest  attempt  at  systematic  investigation  was  begun 
in  1822,  when  the  government  of  Tuscany  sent  a  number  of 
scholars  into  Egypt  to  study  inscriptions,  Chanipollian  and 
Rosellini  were  among  them.  In  1840  Germany  sent  out  an 
expedition  under  the  leadership  of  Lepsius.  This  party  began 
work  at  Memphis,  among  the  pyramids.  In  course  of  time  the 
Tuscan  expedition  supplied  volumes  of  copied  inscriptions  and 
explanatory  material. 

August  Marietta  went  to  Egypt  In  1850  and  was  active 
there  until  1880.  He  made  the  first  great  discovery  when 
he  came  upon  the  burial  place  of  the  Apis  bulls  in  Memphis. 
Sixty-four  tombs  were  found,  together  with  amulets  and 
funeral  ornaments.  In  1857  he  was  made  director  of  a  new 
museum,  which  was  founded  at  Cairo.  He  received  the 
monopoly  of  the  right  to  excavate  in  the  vicinity  of  Thebes, 
and  while  he  allowed  others  to  study  what  was  unearthed  under 


SOCIAI.  U?E  IN    EGYPT.  I45 

his  direction,  he  would  not  permit  them  to  do  any  excavating. 
Maspero  succeeded  him  as  curator  of  the  Cairo  Museum.  Into 
this  museum  has  been  placed  all  the  great  finds  of  recent  years 
and  here  one  who  would  make  detailed  study  of  ancient 
Egypt  must  go. 

As  a  result  of  his  explorations  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile, 
and  of  his  personal  knowledge  of  all  gifts  made  to  the  Cairo 
Museum,  Maspero  has  prepared  many  books  pertaining  to  the 
life  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  His  conclusions  are  drawn  en- 
tirely from  the  revelations  of  old  monuments  and  remains,  and 
are  of  first  importance. 

Means  have  been  provided  by  the  Egyptian  Exploration 
Fund  and  by  the  Egyptian  Research  Account  to  make  it  pos- 
sible for  young  students  to  undertake  explorations  in  behalf  of 
public  museums.  Nothing  found  by  those  thus  engaged  can 
be  sold,  whether  publicly  or  privately,  but  must  be  presented 
to  some  museum  where  people  generally  can  have  an  oppor- 
tunity to  see  and  examine  such  objects.  Reports  of  all  dis- 
coveries are  published  at  the  earliest  possible  moment.  In 
marked  contrast  to  such  generous  principles  have  been  the 
undertakings  carried  on  by  many  who  have  used  recover.ed 
objects  for  their  personal  profit,  or  have  withheld  knowledge 
of  them  indefinitely. 

W.  M.  Flinders  Petrie,  professor  of  Egyptology  in  Uni- 
versity College,  .London,  took  charge  of  the  expedition  sent 
out  by  the  Egypt  Exploration  Fund  in  1884.  Later  he  or- 
ganized the  Egyptian  Research  Account,  in  order  to  give  young 
students  an  opportunity  to  do  active  work  themselves.  In 
late  years  Petrie  has  carried  on  his  efforts  alone.  On  the 
basis  of  his  observations,  discoveries  and  knowledge,  he  has 
prepared  a  history  of  Egypt,  recently  published.  This  is  a 
chronological  account  of  royal  tombs  unearthed  by  him,  rather 
than  a  complete  history  of  Egypt's  development. 

Gardner,  Griffith  and  Naville  have  been  sent  out  at  differ- 
ent times  by  the  Egypt  Exploration  Fund,  and  have  each  pre- 
pared reports  of  their  finds. 

The  Tell  el  Amarna  Letters  should  be  mentioned  with  the 
great  finds  in  Egypt.  In  1887-8,  Arabs,  who  were  carrying 
oflf  bricks  for  their  houses,  came  upon  a  record  chamber,  con- 
taining many  hundred  letters  inscribed  on  bricks.    They  were 


146  THE   WORLD'S   PROGRESS. 

shown  to  experts  who  did  not  appreciate  their  value.  They 
were  put  in  sacks  and  carried  around,  from  one  place  to  an- 
other, with  the  hope  of  making  something  from  their  sale. 
When  many  of  them  had  been  ground  to  powder  and  others 
were  hopelessly  ruined,  they  were  bought  up  by  museums  at 
London,  Berlin,  St.  Petersburg  and  Cairo.  They  have  since 
been  translated  and  it  appears  that  they  belonged  to  the  record 
chamber  of  the  capital  built  by  Amenhotep  IV.,  and  called 
by  him  the  Horizon  of  the  Solar  Disk,  As  now  translated,  they 
are  found  to  be  letters  written  during  the  peaceful  reign  of 
Amenhotep  III.  and  early  in  the  reign  of  Amenhotep  IV. ; 
others  recount  the  North  Syrian  war,  and  certain  others,  the 
Palestine  war.  They  reveal  the  condition  of  the  empire  during 
the  reign  of  the  fanatical  king  who  attempted  to  bring  about 
a  religious  revolution  at  home,  while  hostile  tribes  assailed 
his  empire  on  the  east.  The  Tell  el  Amarna  letters  have  done 
much  to  clear  up  a  portion  of  Egyptian  history,  previously  not 
understood.  Their  revelations  have  been  supplemented  by  two 
wonderful  discoveries  made  within  the  last  two  years :  the 
discovered  tomb  of  the  parents  of  Queen  Tiy — mother  of 
Amenhotep  IV.,  in  1905,  and  early  in  1907,  the  tomb  of  Queen 
Tiy  herself.  These  finds  are  so  remarkable  that  we  may  well 
give  them  brief  consideration. 

In  recent  years,  Theodore  M.  Davis  has  undertaken  syste- 
matic excavations  in  the  Valley  of  the  Kings — the  great  Necro- 
polis west  of  Thebes — for  the  benefit  of  the  Cairo  Museum. 
This  work  has  been  directed  by  Archaeologist  Quibell,  main- 
tained by  the  present  Egyptian  government. 

Quoting  from  one  who  was  present  at  the  exciting  mo- 
ment when  the  tomb  of  Queen  Tiy's  parents  was  opened : 

"  Squeezing  their  way  between  the  wall  and  rock  ceil- 
ing, M.  Maspero  and  Mr.  Davis  were  soon  in  the  midst  of 
such  a  medley  of  tomb  furniture  that,  in  the  glare  of  their  light- 
ed candles,  the  first  effect  was  one  of  bewilderment.  Gradually, 
however,  one  object  after  another  detached  itself  from  the 
shimmering  mass,  shining  through  the  cool  air,  dust-free 
and  golden.  Against  the  wall  to  the  left  stood  a  chair,  and 
beyond  it  a  gilded  coffin-cover  lay  upside  down.  In  it  was 
a  conventional  mask  that  gleamed  golden  through  dark  veil- 
ing; and  the  mummy  whose  head  this  mask  had  covered  lay 


SOCIAI.   UfE  IN    EGYPT.  147 

farther  off,  its  body  partly  incased  in  gilded  openwork.  Against 
the  wall  to  the  right  leaned  two  '  Osiris  beds,'  flat  surfaces 
on  which  seed  had  been  sown,  which  in  sprouting,  had  out- 
lined the  figure  of  the  god.  Not  far  off,  along  the  wall  oppo- 
site the  door,  stood  a  row  of  sentry-boxes,  each  containing 
a  statuette.  In  front  of  these  rose  the  outermost  case  for  a 
mummy.  To  the  left  stood  a  bed.  Nearer  again  lay  a  silvered 
mummy  case;  and  on  this,  and  on  a  mummy  beyond  it,  the 
second  in  the  tomb,  a  shaft  of  cold  blue  light  struck  down  from 
the  outer  day. 

"  By  day-light  then,  mingled  with  the  light  of  flickering 
candle  flames,  the  discoverers  examined  the  second  mummy. 
By  candle  light  alone  they  searched  the  first.  Both  had  been 
plundered  by  the  thief  of  long  ago.  Throwing  the  mummy 
cases  hither  and  yon,  he  had  taken  from  both  mummies  every- 
thing of  intrinsic  value  except  a  plate  of  gold  closing  the 
aperture  through  which  the  heart  of  one  had  been  removed 
by  the  embalmers.  Not  a  jewel,  and  only  part  of  one  necklace, 
remained  of  all  those  with  which  the  dead  must  once  have 
been  bedecked.  But  if  such  trophies  were  lacking,  others  of 
surpassing  splendor  and  significance  still  packed  the  tomb- 
chamber,  from  wall  to  wall.  In  the  bottom  of  a  mummy-case, 
from  which  the  thief  had  removed  the  cover,  he  had  left  a 
cushion  and  a  graceful  alabaster  vase.  In  another  mummy- 
case  he  had  neglected  an  alabaster  jar  and  the  cover  of  an  em- 
broidery-box which  he  must  have  carried  across  the  chamber  to 
a  second  bed,  on  which  it  now  lay  beside  a  superb  gilded  chair. 
Near  by,  where  the  floor  suddenly  fell  one  deep  step  to  a  lower 
level,  he  had  thrown,  among  a  multitude  of  sealed  jars,  half 
of  the  gilded  openwork  casing  which  had  encircled  one  of  the 
mummies.  Near  these  jars  again  he  had  propped  a  coffin -cover 
against  one  corner  of  the  tomb.  Here,  too,  he  had  left  a 
third  bed  and  one  of  the  most  important  finds  in  the  tomb, 
a  chariot,  the  curving  front  and  wheel-rims  of  which  shone 
through  the  darkness  golden  and  scarlet. 

"  Except  for  its  broken  pole  and  the  partly  bare  spokes  of 
its  gilded  wheels,  this  chariot  was  in  perfect  condition;  with 
the  yoke  already  found  in  the  corridor  and  a  whip  soon  to  be 
discovered,  it  lacked  nothing  to  be  complete. 

"  Maspero   studied   ike  hieroglyphics   on   their   gleaming 


148  THE  wori^d's  progress. 

mummy-cases.  *  Tioua,'  he  read  after  a  time ;  and  after  further 
study  he  went  on,  '  loua,  hereditary  prince,  chief  friend  among 
the  friends  of  the  sovereign.'  There  were  the  names  of  the 
dead  in  the  tomb ;  and  these  dead,  as  Maspero  therefore  knew, 
had  been  the  parents  of  Tiy,  a  queen  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty, 
whose  changing  of  the  national  rehgion  had  once  caused 
such  uproar  and  violence  that  the  burial  of  her  parents  in 
the  sacred  Valley  of  the  Kings  would  have  had  to  be  hasty 
and  secret. 

"The  probable  history  of  the  tomb,  accordingly,  was  clear. 
During  a  period  of  unrest  Queen  Tiy,  who  wished  a  royal 
burial  for  her  father  and  mother,  either  chose  an  old  tomb  on 
which  the  work  had  been  abandoned  or  stopped  work  on  one 
which  was  being  hewn  out.  In  it  she  had  placed  the  mummies, 
with  their  funeral  offerings,  till  the  tomb  could  be  reopened 
and  finished,  or  its  contents  transferred  to  a  fitter  resting 
place.  Quiet  times  had  perhaps  never  returned  during  her 
reign ;  and  however  that  may  be,  the  tomb  had  been  reopened, 
not  by  Queen  Tiy,  but  first  by  a  robber,  and  now  at  last,  by 
modern  archaeologists."^ 

Even  more  gratifying  than  the  discovery  just  recounted 
was  the  finding  of  Queen  Tiy  herself.  Again  we  can  get  into 
the  spirit  of  the  discovery  best  by  reading  the  description 
of  an  eye-witness : 

"The  excitement  of  entering  a  newly  opened  tomb  is 
naturally  considerable;  but  when  the  first  inscriptions  to  be 
seen  revealed  the  fact  that  the  tomb  of  Queen  Tiy,  which  had 
been  so  long  sought  for,  had  been  found,  a  glamour  was  added 
to  the  moment  which  will  not  easily  be  forgotten  by  any  of 
the  party.  Inside  the  tomb  chamber  the  gold  covered  coffin 
and  outer  coffin,  gleaming  in  the  light  of  the  electric  lamps, 
formed  a  sight  of  surprising  richness.  .  .  .  The  mummy 
of  the  queen  protruded  from  beneath  the  lip  of  the  beautiful 
coffin,  which  was  made  in  human  form.  A  vulture-headed 
diadem  of  gold  could  just  be  seen  passing  around  her  head, 
and  one  could  see  here  and  there  the  shining  sheets  of  gold  in 
which  the  body  was  wrapped.  There  must  have  been  thou- 
sands of  dollars  worth  of  gold-foil  and  leaf  in  the  chamber, 
and  the  post-Akhnaton  officials  seem  to  have  carried  away 

1  Century,  Nov.,  '05. 


SOCIAL   LIFE   IN    EGYPT.  I49 

many  of  the  portable  gold  ornaments,  probably  amounting  to 
many  times  that  value.  In  a  recess  cut  in  the  wall  of  thr 
chamber  stood  four  fine  canopic  vases  of  alabastrum,  contain- 
ing the  queen's  heart  and  intestines;  and  in  one  corner  oi 
the  room  there  were  several  charming  little  pots  and  toilet 
utensils  of  blue  glazed  ware.  One  of  these,  in  the  form  of  a 
graceful  girl  carrying  a  pot  upon  her  shoulder,  is  perhaps  the 
most  perfect  specimen  of  miniature  figure-moldmg  known  in 
Egypt.     .     .     . 

"  After  the  tomb  had  been  opened  for  a  few  hours,  the 
air,  of  course,  became  very  much  better,  but  its  bad  effects 
on  the  antiquities  was  at  once  discernible.  Even  before  the 
first  quick  record  had  been  finished,  some  of  the  scenes  on  the 
gold  showed  signs  of  dropping  to  pieces.     .     .     . 

"  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  most  of  the  antiquities  will  be  able 
to  travel  to  Cairo,  though  their  fragile  condition  makes  it 
difficult  to  deal  with  them.  Probably  much  of  the  rotten  wood 
work,  and  even  some  of  the  fine  reliefs  on  the  gold-leaf,  will 
have  to  be  left  in  the  tomb,  which  will  be  closed  with  Portland 
cement."'' 

Greatest  care  has  to  be  exercised  to  protect  finds  from  the 
Arabs.  In  spite  of  the  vigilance  of  the  government,  pilfering 
of  the  old  Necropolis  is  constantly  carried  on.  Every  frag- 
ment or  curio  which  might  bring  profit  is  snatched  up  by 
those  in  the  employ  of  speculators. 

Difficulties  Confronting  the  Explorer, 

Petrie  has  given  in  detail  many  of  the  difficulties  which 
have  confronted  him  in  his  excavations  among  ancient  Egypt- 
ian tombs.  On  one  occasion,  in  preference  to  living  in  an 
Arabian  village,  he  hunted  out  an  old  tomb,  occupied  the 
three  chambers  above,  where  the  deceased  had  been  fed  and 
worshipped,  and  with  his  guide  as  a  guard  in  an  adjoining 
tomb,  found  the  place  secure  and  comfortable, 

A  little  account  of  his  experience  in  the  summer  of  1888, 
while  excavating  in  the  Fayoum,  will  give  us  some  notion  of 
the  perplexities  that  often  beset  the  archaeologist.  When- 
ever possible,  quotation  is  made  from  Petrie's  own  report. 
The  district  he  selected — the  Fayoum — calls  to  mind  Amenem- 

2  Century,  Sept.,  '07. 


ISO  THE  WORLDS  PROGRESS. 

het  III,,  who  first  irrigated  the  region  and  thus  added  mater- 
ially to  the  arable  land  of  his  country.  To  this  particular  sec- 
tion Petrie  was  drawn,  because,  as  he  explains :  "  The  ex- 
ploration of  the  pyramids  of  this  district  was  my  main  object, 
as  their  arrangement,  their  dates,  and  their  builders  were  yet 
unknown."* 

"  So  soon  as  we  began  to  turn  over  the  soil  we  found  chips 
of  sandstone  colossi ;  the  second  day  the  gigantic  nose  of  a 
colossus  was  found,  as  broad  as  a  man's  body;  then  pieces  of 
carved  thrones,  and  a  fragment  of  inscription  of  Amenemhet 
III.  It  was  evident  that  the  two  piles  of  stone  had  been  the 
pedestals  of  colossal  seated  monolithic  statues,  carved  in  hard 
quartzite  sandstone,  and  brilliantly  polished.  These  statues 
faced  northward,  and  around  each  was  a  courtyard  wall  with 
sloping  outer  face  and  red  granite  gateway  in  the  north  front. 
The  total  height  of  the  colossi  was  about  60  feet  from  the 
ground.  The  description  of  Herodotus,  therefore,  is  accounted 
for ;  and  it  shows  that  he  actually  saw  the  figures,  though  from 
a  distance,  as  any  person  who  visited  them  closely  would  not 
have  described  them  in  such  a  manner."* 

Petrie  took  his  corps  of  native  workmen  next  to  Hawara, 
for  the  pyramids  there  had  not  been  opened  in  modern  times. 
Finding  no  trace  of  an  entrance,  they  tunneled  for  many  weeks 
in  the  solid  tomb.  Finally  a  small  opening  was  effected  into 
the  old  chamber  of  the  tomb,  and  there,  by  the  flickering  light 
of  a  candle,  could  be  seen  two  empty  sarcophagi.  A  modern 
canal  has  saturated  this  part  of  the  land  and  the  explorer  was 
obliged  to  wade  through  mud  to  the  tombs. 

Quoting  from  his  description  of  what  was  found :  "  The 
pyramid  had  been  elaborately  arranged  so  as  to  deceive  and 
weary  the  spoilers,  and  it  had  apparently  occupied  a  great 
amount  of  labor  to  force  an  entrance."  After  explaining  a 
dozen  ways  they  had  tried  and  failed,  he  says :  "  At  last  the 
way  had  been  forced  by  breaking  away  a  hole  in  the  edge 
of  the  glassy-hard  sandstone  roofing  block,  and  thus  reaching 
the  chamber  and  its  sarcophagi.  By  a  little  widening  of  the 
spoilers'  hole  I  succeeded  in  getting  through  it  into  the  cham- 
ber.    The  water  was  up  to  the  middle  of  my  body,  and  so 

»  Petrie  :  Ten  Years'  Digging  in  Egypt,  81. 
«Ibid.  82. 


SOCIAIv   UFE   IN    EGYPT.  I51 

the  exploration  was  difficult;  but  the  floor  was  covered  with 
rubbish  and  chips,  which  might  contain  parts  of  the  funeral 
vessels,  and  therefore  needed  searching.  The  first  day  I 
got  the  coveted  prize,  a  piece  of  alabaster  vessel  with  the 
name  of  Amenemhet  III.,  proving  finally  to  whom  the  pyramid 
belonged.  Still  there  was  a  puzzle  as  to  the  second  sarcophagus, 
which  had  been  built  up  between  the  great  central  one  and  the 
chamber  side.  On  clearing  in  the  chamber  which  led  to  the 
sepulchre,  however,  a  beautiful  altar  of  oflferings  in  alabaster 
was  found,  covered  with  figures  of  the  offerings  all  named, 
over  a  hundred,  and  dedicated  to  the  king's  daughter,  Neferu- 
ptah.  .  .  .  The  chamber  itself  is  a  marvellous  work; 
nearly  the  whole  height  of  it  is  carved  out  of  a  single  block 
of  hard  quartzite  sandstone,  forming  a  huge  tank  in  which 
the  sarcophagus  was  placed.  No  trace  of  inscription  exists 
on  either  the  walls  or  the  sarcophagi ;  and  but  for  the  funeral 
furniture,  even  the  very  name  would  not  have  been  recovered."* 

Next  they  located  what  had  in  all  probability  been  the  old 
Labyrinth.  No  trace  of  the  building  itself  could  be  discovered, 
but  the  vast  extent  showed  it  to  have  been  larger  than  any 
temple  known  in  Egypt.  Pliny,  a  Roman  historian,  has  told 
us  that  for  centuries  this  Labyrinth  served  as  a  quarry  for  this 
section  of  the  country,  and  that  a  small  town  of  quarrymen 
lived  near  by. 

In  the  cemetery  of  Hawara,  Petrie  made  some  explorations. 
He  succeeded  in  finding  one  tomb,  which  had  been  missed 
by  the  spoilers — this  naturally  was  the  coveted  find.  It  be- 
longed to  the  twenty-sixth  dynasty,  a  period  of  the  decline  of 
Egyptian  power.  It  was  the  tomb  of  a  great  noble,  Horuta. 
Standing  deep  under  water,  it  was  more  difficult  to  manage 
than  usual. 

"  But  the  sarcophagus  itself  was  most  difficult  to  open. 
The  lid  block  was  nearly  two  feet  thick,  and  almost  under 
water.  It  was  too  heavy  for  us  to  move  entire,  so  some  weeks 
were  spent  in  cutting  it  in  two.  One  piece  was  then  raised, 
but  it  proved  to  be  the  foot  end;  and  though  I  spent  a  day 
struggling  with  the  inner  coffins,  sitting  in  the  sarcophagus 
up  to  my  nose  in  water,  I  yet  could  not  draw  them  out  from 
under  the  rest  of  the  stone  lid.     So  after  some  days  the  men 

"Petrie :  Ten  Years'  Digging  in  Egypt,  86. 


152  rut  world's  progress. 

raised  that,  enough  to  get  one's  head  in  between  the  under 
side  of  it  and  the  water;  and  then  I  spent  another  gruesome 
day,  sitting  astride  of  the  inner  coffin,  unable  to  turn  my  head 
under  the  hd  without  tasting  the  bitter  brine  in  which  I  sat." 
At  last  the  coffin  was  recovered.  "  Anxiously  opening  it,  we 
found  a  slight  inner  coffin,  and  then  the  body  of  Horuta  him- 
self, wrapped  in  a  network  of  beads  of  lazuli,  beryl,  and  silver, 
this  last  decomposed.  .  .  .  Then  came  the  last  and  longed- 
for  scene,  for  which  our  months  of  toil  had  whetted  our  appe- 
tites— the  unwrapping  of  Horuta.  Bit  by  bit  the  layers  of 
pitch  and  cloth  were  loosened,  and  row  after  row  of  magnificent 
amulets  were  disclosed,  just  as  they  were  laid  on  in  the  distant 
past.  The  gold  ring  on  the  finger  which  bore  his  name  and 
titles,  the  exquisitely  inlaid  gold  birds,  the  chased  gold  figures, 
the  lazuli  statuettes  delicately  wrought,  the  polished  lazuli  and 
beryl  and  carnelian  amulets  finally  engraved,  all  the  wealth 
of  talismanic  armory,  rewarded  our  eyes  with  a  sight  which 
has  never  been  surpassed  to  archaeological  gaze.  No  such 
complete  and  rich  a  series  of  amulets  has  been  seen  intact 
before ;  and  as  one  by  one  they  were  removed  all  their  positions 
were  recorded,  and  they  may  now  be  seen  lying  in  their  original 
order  in  the  Ghizeh  Museum.'" 

We  have  noted  repeatedly  the  various  articles  found  within 
the  tombs,  such  as  funeral  furniture,  vases,  food,  and  amulets. 
Some  rather  unusual  disclosures  were  brought  to  light  in  this 
old  cemetery  in  the  Fayoum.  Children's  toys,  and  their  per- 
sonal belongings  were  found  entombed  with  their  mummies. 
One  tomb  of  a  much  later  date  than  yet  mentioned — of  Roman 
Egypt  indeed — contained  one  of  the  books  of  the  Iliad.  More 
valuable  than  any  of  these  were  wreaths  of  flowers  with  which 
the  dead  had  been  adorned.  These  were  perfectly  dried  and 
from  them  and  accounts  given  us  by  Pliny,  the  ancient  flora 
of  Egypt  has  been  worked  out  by  the  patience  and  painstaking 
of  noted  botanists. 

•Petrie :  Ten  Years'  Digging  in  Egypt,  93,  ff. 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  EGYPT. 


The  Nile  had  overflowed  its  bed.  The  luxuriant  corn  fields 
Artd  blooming-  gardens  on  its  shores  were  lost  beneath  a  bound- 
less waste  of  waters ;  and  only  the  gigantic  temples  and  palaces 
of  its  cities  (protected  from  the  force  of  the  water  by  dikes), 
and  the  tops  of  the  tall  palm-trees  and  acacias  could  be  seen 
above  its  surface.  The  branches  of  the  sycamores  and  plane- 
trees  drooped  and  floated  on  the  waves,  but  the  boughs  of  the 
tall  silver  poplars  strained  upward,  as  if  anxious  to  avoid  the 
watery  world  beneath.  The  full  moon  had  risen ;  her  soft  light 
fell  on  the  Libyan  range  of  mountains  vanishing  on  the  western 
horizon,  and  in  the  north  the  shimmer  of  the  IMediterranean 
could  faintly  be  discerned.  Blue  and  white  lotus  flowers  floated 
on  the  clear  water,  bats  of  all  kinds  darted  softly  through  the 
still  air,  heavy  with  the  scent  of  acacia-blossom  and  jasmine; 
the  wild  pigeons  and  other  birds  were  at  roost  in  the  tops  of 
the  trees,  while  the  pelicans,  storks  and  cranes  squatted  in 
groups  on  the  shore  under  the  shelter  of  the  papyrus  reeds,  and 
Nile-beans.  The  pelicans  and  storks  remained  motionless, 
their  long  bills  bidder  beneath  their  wings,  but  the  cranes  were 
startled  by  the  mere  beat  of  an  oar,  stretching  their  necks,  and 
peering  anxiously  into  distance,  if  they  heard  but  the  song  of 
the  boatmen.  The  air  was  perfectly  motionless,  and  the  un- 
broken reflection  of  the  moon,  lying  like  a  silver  shield  or.  the 
surface  of  the  water,  proved  that,  wildly  as  the  Nile  leaps  over 
cataracts,  and  rushes  past  the  gigantic  temples  of  Upper  Egypt, 
yet  on  approaching  the  sea  by  dififerent  arms,  he  can  abandon 
his  impetuous  course,  and  flow  along  in  sober  tranquility. 

On  this  moonlight  night  in  the  year  528  b.  c.  a  bark  was 
crossing  the  almost  currentless  canopic  mouth  of  the  Nile. 
On  the  raised  deck  at  the  stern  of  this  boat  an  Egyptian  was 
sitting  to  guide  the  long  pole-rudder,  and  the  half  naked  boat- 
men within  were  singing  as  they  rowed.     .     .     . 

153 


154  THE  world's  progress. 

As  Phanes  uttered  these  words  they  landed  at  the  garden 
wall,  washed  by  the  Nile.     .     .     .  The  garden  of  Rhodo- 

pis  was  as  full  of  sound,  and  scent  and  blossom  as  a  night  in 
fairy  land.  It  was  one  labyrinth  of  acanthus  shrubs,  yellow 
mimosa,  the  snowy  gueldres  rose,  jasmine  and  lilac,  red  roses 
and  laburnums,  overshadowed  by  tall  palm-trees,  acacias  and 
balsam-trees.  Large  bats  hovered  softly  on  their  delicate  wings 
over  the  whole,  and  sounds  of  mirth  and  song  echoed  from  the 
river. 

This  garden  had  been  laid  out  by  an  Egyptian,  and  the 
builders  of  the  Pyramids  had  already  been  celebrated  for  ages 
for  their  skill  in  horticulture.  They  well  understood  how  to 
mark  out  neat  flower-beds,  plant  groups  of  trees  and  shrubs  in 
regular  order,  water  the  whole  by  aqueducts  and  fountains, 
arrange  arbors  and  summer-houses,  and  even  inclose  the  walks 
with  artistically  clipped  hedges  and  breed  gold-fish  in  stone 
basins.     .     .     . 

At  noon  on  the  following  day  the  same  boat,  which,  the 
evening  before,  had  carried  the  Athenian  and  the  Spartan,  stop- 
ped once  more  before  Rhodopis'  garden.  The  sun  was  shin- 
ing so  brightly,  so  warmly  and  genially  in  the  dark  blue  Egyp- 
tian sky,  the  air  was  so  pure  and  light,  the  beetles  were  hum- 
ming so  merrily,  the  boatmen  singing  so  lustily  and  happily, 
the  shores  of  the  Nile  bloomed  in  such  gay,  variegated  beauty, 
and  were  so  thickly  peopled,  the  palm-trees,  sycamores,  bananas 
and  acacias  were  so  luxuriant  in  foliage  and  blossom,  and  over 
the  whole  landscape  the  rarest  and  most  glorious  gfifts  seemed 
to  have  been  poured  out  with  such  divine  munificence  that  a 
passerby  must  have  pronounced  it  the  very  home  of  joy  and 
gladness,  a  place  from  which  sadness  and  sorrow  had  been 
forever  banished. 

— An  Egyptian  Princess, 

Descriptions  oe  Egypt.    II. 

The  feast  of  Neith,  called  in  Egyptian  "  the  lamp-burning," 
was  celebrated  by  a  universal  illumination,  which  began  at  the 
rising  of  the  moon.  The  shores  of  the  Nile  looked  like  two 
long  lines  of  fire.  Every  temple,  house,  and  hut  was  orna- 
mented with  lamps,  according  to  the  means  of  its  possessors. 


DESCRIPTION  O^  EGYPT.  I55 

The  porches  of  the  country  houses  and  the  Httle  towers  on  the 
larger  buildings  were  all  lighted  up  by  brilliant  flames,  burning 
in  pans  of  pitch  and  sending  up  clouds  of  smoke,  in  which  the 
flags  and  pennons  waved  gently  backward  and  forward.  The 
palm-trees  and  sycamores  were  silvered  by  the  moonlight  and 
threw  strange  fantastic  reflections  onto  the  red  waters  of  the 
Nile — red  from  the  fiery  glow  of  the  houses  on  their  shores. 
But,  strong  and  glowing  as  was  the  light  of  the  illumination, 
its  rays  had  not  power  to  reach  the  middle  of  the  giant  river 
where  the  boat  was  making  its  course  and  the  pleasure  party 
felt  as  if  they  were  sailing  in  dark  night  between  two  brilliant 
days.  Now  and  then  a  brightly  lighted  boat  would  come 
swiftly  across  the  river  and  seem  as  it  neared  the  shore  to  be 
cutting  its  way  through  a  glowing  stream  of  molten  iron. 

Lotus-blossoms,  white  as  snow,  lay  on  the  surface  of  the 
river,  rising  and  falling  with  the  waves  and  looking  like  eyes 
in  the  water.  Not  a  sound  could  be  heard  from  either  shore. 
The  echoes  were  carried  away  by  the  north  wind  and  the  meas- 
ured stroke  of  the  oars  and  the  monotonous  song  of  the 
rowers  were  the  only  sounds  that  broke  the  stillness  of  this 
strange  night— a  night  robbed  of  its  darkness.     .     .     . 

The  pyramids  lay  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile,  in  the  silver 
moonshine,  massive  and  awful,  as  if  bruising  the  earth  beneath 
them  with  their  weight;  the  giant  graves  of  mighty  rulers. 
They  seemed  examples  of  man's  creative  power  and  at  the 
same  time  warnings  of  the  vanity  and  mutability  of  earthly 
greatness.  For  where  was  Chufu^  now — the  king  who  had 
cemented  that  mountain  of  stone  with  the  sweat  of  his  subjects? 
Where  was  the  long-lived  Chafra^  who  had  despised  the  gods, 
and,  defiant  in  the  consciousness  of  his  own  strength,  was  said 
to  have  closed  the  gates  of  the  temples  in  order  to  make  him- 
self and  his  name  immortal  by  building  a  tomb  of  superhuman 
dimensions?  Their  empty  sarcophagi  are,  perhaps,  tokens  that 
the  judges  of  the  dead  found  them  unworthy  of  rest  in  the  grave, 
unworthy  of  the  resurrection,  whereas,  the  builder  of  the  third 
and  most  beautiful  pyramid,  Menkera,*  who  contented  himself 
with  a  smaller  monument,  and  reopened  the  gates  of  the  tem- 
ples, was  allowed  to  rest  in  peace  in  his  coffin  of  blue  basalt. 

There  they  lay  in  the  quiet  night,  these  mighty  pyramids, 

*Khufu.    *Khafre.    •Mcnkurc 


156  THB  world's  progress. 

shone  on  by  the  bright  stars,  guarded  by  the  watchmen  of  the 
desert — the  gigantic  sphinx — and  overlooking  the  barren  rocks 
of  the  Libyan  stony  mountains.  At  their  feet  slept  the  mum- 
mies of  their  faithful  subjects.     .     .     . 

But  their  boat  sped  on  before  the  north  wind ;  they  left  the 
city  of  the  dead  behind  them  and  passed  the  enormous  dikes 
built  to  protect  the  city  of  Menes  from  the  violence  of  the 
floods ;  the  city  of  the  Pharaohs  came  in  sight,  dazzlingly  bright 
with  the  myriads  of  flames  \\  hich  had  been  kindled  in  honor  of 
the  goddess  Neith,  and  when  at  last  the  gigantic  temple  of 
Ptah  appeared,  the  most  ancient  building  of  the  most  ancient 
land,  the  spell  broke,  their  tongues  were  loosed,  and  they  burst 
out  into  loud  exclamations  of  delight. 

It  was  illuminated  by  thousands  of  lamps ;  a  hundred  fires 
burned  on  its  pylons,  its  battlemented  walls  and  roofs.  Burn- 
ing torches  flared  between  the  rows  of  sphinxes  which  con- 
nected the  various  gates  with  the  main  building,  and  the  now 
empty  house  of  the  god  Apis  was  so  surrounded  by  colored 
fires  that  it  gleamed  like  a  white  limestone  rock  in  a  tropical 
sunset.  Pennons,  flags  and  garlands  waved  above  the  bril- 
liant picture ;  music  and  loud  songs  could  be  heard  from  below. 

— Bgyptian  Princess. 

Descriptions  oe  Egypt.     III. 

By  the  walls  of  Thebes — the  old  city  of  a  hundred  gates — 
the  Nile  spreads  to  a  broad  river ;  the  heights,  which  follow  the 
stream  on  both  sides,  here  take  a  more  decided  outline ;  solitary, 
almost  cone-shaped  peaks  stand  out  sharply  from  the  level  back- 
ground of  the  many-colored  limestone  hills,  on  which  no  palm- 
tree  flourishes  and  in  which  no  humble  desert-plant  can  strike 
root.  Rocky  crevasses  and  gorges  cut  more  or  less  deeply  into 
the  mountain  range,  and  up  to  its  ridge  extends  the  desert, 
destructive  of  all  life,  with  sand  and  stones,  with  rocky  cliffs 
and  reef-like,  desert  hills. 

Behind  the  eastern  range  the  desert  spreads  to  the  Red  Sea ; 
behind  the  western  it  stretches  without  limit,  into  infinity.  In 
the  belief  of  the  Egyptians  beyond  it  lay  the  region  of  the 
dead.     .     .     . 

In  the  fourteenth  century  before  Christ — for  to  so  remote 


DESCRIPTION  OF  EGYPT.  1 57 

a  date  we  must  direct  the  thoughts  of  the  reader — impassable 
limits  had  been  set  by  the  hand  of  man,  in  many  places  in 
Thebes,  to  the  inroads  of  the  water;  high  dykes  of  stone  and 
embankments  protected  the  streets  and  squares,  the  temples  and 
the  palaces,  from  the  overflow. 

Canals  that  could  be  tightly  closed  up  led  from  the  dykes 
to  the  land  within,  and  smaller  branch-cuttings  to  the  gardens 
of  Thebes. 

On  the  right,  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Nile,  rose  the  buildings 
of  the  far-famed  residence  of  the  Pharaohs.  Close  by  the 
river  stood  the  immense  and  gaudy  temples  of  the  city  of  Amon ; 
behind  these  and  at  a  short  distance  from  the  Eastern  hills — 
indeed  at  their  very  foot  and  partly  even  on  the  soil  of  the 
desert — were  the  palaces  of  the  king  and  nobles,  and  the  shady 
streets  in  which  the  high  narrow  houses  of  the  citizens  stood 
in  close  rows. 

Life  was  gay  and  busy  in  the  streets  of  the  capital  of  the 
Pharaohs.  The  western  shore  of  the  Nile  showed  quite  a  dif- 
ferent scene.  Here  too  there  was  no  lack  of  stately  buildings 
or  thronging  men;  but  while  on  the  further  side  of  the  river 
there  was  a  compact  mass  of  houses,  and  the  citizens  went  cheer- 
fully and  openly  about  their  day's  work,  on  this  side  there  were 
solitary  splendid  structures,  round  which  little  houses  and  huts 
seemed  to  cling  as  children  cling  to  the  protection  of  a  mother. 
And  these  buildings  lay  in  detached  groups.     .     .     . 

And  even  more  dissimilar  were  the  slow-moving,  solemn 
groups  in  the  road-ways  on  this  side,  and  the  cheerful,  con- 
fused throng  yonder.  There,  on  the  eastern  shore,  all  were  in 
eager  pursuit  of  labor  or  recreation,  stirred  by  pleasure  or  by 
grief,  active  in  deed  and  speech :  here,  in  the  west,  little  was 
spoken,  a  spell  seemed  to  check  the  footsteps  of  the  wanderer, 
a  pale  hand  to  sadden  the  bright  glance  of  every  eye,  and  to 
banish  the  smile  from  every  lip. 

And  yet  many  a  gayly-dressed  bark  stopped  at  the  shore, 
there  was  no  lack  of  minstrel  bands,  grand  processions  passed 
on  to  the  western  heights ;  but  the  Nile  boats  bore  the  dead,  the 
songs  sung  here  were  songs  of  lamentation,  and  the  processions 
consisted  of  mourners  following  the  sarcophagus.  We  are 
standing  on  the  soil  of  the  City  of  the  Dead  of  Thebes. 

Nevertheless  even  here  nothing  is  wanting  for  return  and 

1—12 


158  THK  world's  progress. 

revival,  for  to  the  Egyptian  his  dead  died  not.  He  closed  his 
eyes,  he  bore  him  to  the  Necropohs,  to  the  house  of  the  em- 
balmer,  or  Kolchytes,  and  then  to  the  grave ;  but  he  knew  that 
the  souls  of  the  departed  lived  on;  that  the  justified  absorbed 
into  Osiris  floated  over  the  Heavens  in  the  vessel  of  the  Sun ; 
that  they  appeared  on  earth  in  the  form  they  chose  to  take  upon 
them,  and  that  they  might  exert  influence  on  the  current  of  the 
lives  of  the  survivors.  So  he  took  care  to  give  a  worthy  in- 
terment to  his  dead,  above  all  to  have  the  body  embalmed  so  as 
to  endure  long ;  and  had  fixed  times  to  bring  fresh  ofiferings  for 
the  dead,  of  flesh  and  fowl,  with  drink-offerings  and  sweet- 
smelling  essences,  and  vegetables  and  flowers. 

Neither  at  the  obsequies  nor  at  the  offerings  might  the 
ministers  of  the  gods  be  absent,  and  the  silent  City  of  the  Dead 
was  regarded  as  a  favored  sanctuary  in  which  to  establish  schools 
and  dwellings  for  the  learned. 

So  it  came  to  pass  that  in  the  temples  and  on  the  site  of  the 
Necropolis,  large  communities  of  priests  dwelt  together,  and 
close  to  the  extensive  embalming  houses  lived  numerous 
Kolchytes,  who  handed  down  the  secrets  of  their  art  from  father 
to  son. 

Besides  these  there  were  other  manufactories  and  shops. 
In  the  former,  sarcophagi  of  stone  and  of  wood,  linen  bands 
for  enveloping  mummies,  and  amulets  for  decorating  them, 
were  made;  in  the  latter,  merchants  kept  spices  and  essences, 
flowers,  fruits,  vegetables  and  pastry  for  sale.  Calves,  gazelles, 
goats,  geese,  and  other  fowl  were  fed  on  inclosed  meadow-plats, 
and  the  mourners  betook  themselves  thither  to  select  what  they 
needed  from  among  the  beasts  pronounced  by  the  priests  to  be 
clean  for  sacrifice,  and  to  have  them  sealed  with  the  sacred  seal. 
Many  bought  only  a  part  of  a  victim  at  the  shambles — the  poor 
could  not  even  do  this.  They  bought  only  colored  cakes  in  the 
shape  of  beasts,  which  symbolically  took  the  place  of  the  calves 
and  geese  which  their  means  were  unable  to  procure.  In  the 
handsomest  shops  sat  servants  of  the  priests,  who  received  forms 
written  on  rolls  of  papyrus  which  were  filled  up  in  the  writing 
room  of  the  temple  with  those  sacred  verses  which  the  departed 
spirit  must  know  and  repeat  to  ward  off  the  evil  genius  of  the 
deep,  to  open  the  gate  of  the  under-world,  and  to  be  held  righ- 
teous before  Osiris  and  the  forty-two  assessors  of  the  subter- 
ranean court  of  justice. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  EGYPT.  1 59 

What  took  place  within  the  temples  was  concealed  from 
view,  for  each  was  surrounded  by  a  high  inclosing  wall  with 
lofty,  carefully  closed  portals,  which  were  only  opened  when 
a  chorus  of  priests  came  out  to  sing  a  pious  hymn,  in  the  morn- 
ing to  Horus  the  rising  god,  and  in  the  evening  to  Tum  the 
descending  god.  As  soon  as  the  evening  hymn  of  fhe  priests 
was  heard,  the  Necropolis  was  deserted,  for  the  mourners  and 
those  who  were  visiting  the  graves  were  required  by  this  time 
to  return  to  their  boats,  and  to  quit  the  City  of  the  Dead. 
Crowds  of  men  who  had  marched  in  the  processions  of  the  west 
bank  hastened  in  disorder  to  the  shore,  driven  on  by  the  body 
of  watchmen  who  took  it  in  turns  to  do  this  duty  and  to  protect 
the  graves  against  robbers.  The  merchants  closed  their  booths, 
then  embalmers  and  workmen  ended  their  day's  work  and 
retired  to  their  houses,  the  priests  returned  to  the  temples,  and 
the  inns  were  filled  with  guests,  who  had  come  hither  on  long 
pilgrimages  from  a  distance,  and  who  preferred  passing  the 
night  in  the  vicinity  of  the  dead  whom  they  had  come  to  visit, 
to  going  across  to  the  bustling  noisy  city  on  the  further  shore. 

The  voices  of  the  singers  and  of  the  wailing  women  were 
hushed,  e\^en  the  song  of  the  sailors  on  the  numberless  ferry- 
boats from  the  western  shore  of  Thebes  died  away,  its  faint 
echo  was  now  and  then  borne  across  on  the  evening  air,  and  at 
last  all  was  still. 

Uarda. 

Karnak. 

"  I  am  Karnak,  and  a  thousand  million  men  have  lived  and  died 
Since  open  have  my  gates  been  thrown  for  kings  through  them 

to  ride: 
My  massive  walls  have  echoed  to  the  tread  of  Egypt's  hosts, 
But  now  they  are  a  skulking  place  for  goblins  and  for  ghosts." 

"  I  stand  once  more  among  those  mighty  columns,  which 
radiate  into  avenues  from  whatever  point  one  takes  them.  I 
see  them  swathed  in  coiled  shadows  and  broad  bands  of  light. 
I  see  them  sculptured  and  painted  with  shapes  of  gods  and 
kings,  with  blazonings  of  royal  names,  with  sacrificial  altars 
and  forms  of  sacred  beasts,  and  emblems  of  wisdom  and  truth. 


100  THE  wori^d's  progress. 

The  shafts  of  these  columns  are  enormous.  I  stand  at  the  foot 
of  one — or  of  what  seems  to  be  the  foot ;  for  the  original  pave- 
ment lies  buried  seven  feet  below.  ...  It  casts  a  shadow 
twelve  feet  in  breadth — such  a  shadow  as  might  be  cast  by  a 
tower.  Tj?e  capital  that  juts  out  so  high  above  my  head  looks 
as  if  it  might  have  been  placed  there  to  support  the  heavens. 
It  is  carved  in  the  semblance  of  a  full-blown  lotus,  and  glows 
with  undying  colors — colors  that  are  still  fresh,  though  laid 
on  by  hands  that  have  been  dust  these  three  thousand  years  and 
more.  It  would  take  not  six  men,  but  a  dozen,  to  measure  round 
the  curved  lip  of  that  stupendous  lily. 

"  Such  are  the  twelve  central  columns.  The  rest  (one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-two  in  number)  are  gigantic,  too,  but  smaller. 
Of  the  roof  they  once  supported,  only  the  beams  remain.  Those 
beams  are  stone  .  .  .  carved  and  painted,  bridging  the 
space  from  pillar  to  pillar,  and  patterning  the  trodden  soil  with 
bands  of  shadow. 

"  Looking  up  and  down  the  central  avenue,  we  see  at  the 
one  end  a  flame-like  obelisk ;  at  the  other,  a  solitary  palm  against 
a  back-ground  of  glowing  mountain.  To  right,  to  left,  show- 
ing transversely  through  long  files  of  columns,  we  catch 
glimpses  of  colossal  bas-reliefs  lining  the  roofless  walls  in  every 
direction.  The  king,  as  usual,  figures  in  every  group,  and  per- 
forms the  customary  acts  of  worship.  The  gods  receive  and 
approve  him.  Half  in  light,  half  in  shadow,  these  slender, 
fantastic  forms  stand  out  sharp  and  clear  and  colorless;  each 
figure  some  eighteen  or  twenty  feet  in  height.  They  could 
scarcely  have  looked  more  weird  when  the  great  roof  was  in 
its  place  and  perpetual  twilight  reigned.  But  it  is  difficult  to 
imagine  the  roof  on  and  the  sky  shut  out.  It  all  looks  right 
as  it  is ;  and  one  feels,  somehow,  that  such  columns  should  have 
nothing  between  them  and  the  infinite  blue  depths  of 
heaven.     .     .     . 

"  How  often  has  it  been  written,  and  how  often  must  it  be 
repeated,  that  the  great  hall  at  Karnak  is  the  noblest  architec- 
tural work  ever  designed  and  executed  by  human  hands  ?  One 
writer  tells  us  that  it  covers  four  times  the  area  occupied  by  the 
cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  in  Paris.  Another  measures  it 
against  St.  Peter's.  All  admit  their  inability  to  describe  it; 
yet  all  attempt  the  description.     To  convey  a  concrete  image 


DESCRIPTION   OF  EGYPT.  l6l 

of  the  place  to  one  who  has  never  seen  it,  is,  however,  as  I  have 
said,  impossible.  If  it  could  be  likened  to  this  place  or  that, 
the  task  would  not  be  so  difficult;  but  there  is,  in  truth,  no 
building  in  the  wide  world  to  compare  with  it.  The  pyramids 
are  more  stupendous.  The  colosseum  covers  more  ground. 
The  Parthenon  is  more  beautiful.  Yet  in  nobility  of  concep- 
tion, in  vastness  of  detail,  in  majesty  of  the  highest  order,  the 
hall  of  pillars  exceeds  them  every  one.  This  doorway,  these 
columns,  are  the  wonder  of  the  world.  How  was  that  lintel- 
stone  raised?  How  w^ere  these  capitals  lifted?  Entering 
among  those  mighty  pillars,  says  a  recent  observer,  *  you  feel 
that  you  have  shrunk  to  the  dimensions  and  feebleness  of  a  fly.' 
But  I  think  you  feel  more  than  that.  You  are  stupefied  by  the 
thought  of  the  mighty  men  who  made  them.  You  say  to  your- 
self:   *  There  were  indeed  giants  in  those  days.' 

"  It  may  be  that  the  traveler  who  finds  himself  for  the  first 
time  in  the  midst  of  a  grove  of  WelUngtonia  gigantea  feels 
something  of  the  same  overwhelming  sense  of  awe  and  wonder ; 
but  the  great  trees,  though  they  have  taken  three  thousand 
years  to  grow,  lack  the  pathos  and  the  mystery  that  comes  of 
human  labor.  They  do  not  strike  their  roots  through  six 
thousand  years  of  history.  They  liave  not  been  watered  with 
the  blood  and  tears  of  millions.  Their  leaves  know  no  sounds 
less  musical  than  the  singing  of  the  birds,  or  the  moaning  of 
the  night-w'ind  as  it  sweeps  over  the  highlands  of  Calaveras. 
But  every  breath  that  wanders  dow^n  the  painted  aisles  of 
Karnak  seems  to  echo  back  the  sighs  of  those  who  perished  in 
the  quarry,  at  the  oar,  and  under  the  chariot-wheels  of  the 
conqueror." 

Memphis. 

"  And  this  is  all  that  remains  of  Memphis,  eldest  of  cities 
— a  few  huge  rubbish-heaps,  a  dozen  or  so  of  broken  statues, 
and  a  name !  One  looks  round  and  tries  in  vain  to  realize  the 
lost  splendors  of  the  place.  Where  is  the  Memphis  that  King 
Mena^  came  from  Thinis  to  found — the  Memphis  of  Chufu'^  and 
Chafra,'  and  all  the  early  kings  who  built  their  pyramid-tombs 
in  the  adjacent  desert?  Where  is  the  Memphis  of  Herodotus 
and  Strabo?    Where  are  those  stately  ruins  which,  even  in 


»Menes.    'Khufu.    'Khafre. 


i62  THE  world's  progress. 

the  middle  ages,  extended  over  a  space  estimated  at  half  a 
day's  journey  in  every  direction  ? '  One  can  hardly  believe 
that  a  great  city  ever  flourished  on  this  spot,  or  understfc.nd  how 
it  should  have  been  effaced  so  utterly.  Yet  here  it  stood — 
here  where  the  grass  is  green,  and  the  palms  are  growing,  and 
the  Arabs  build  their  hovels  on  the  verge  of  the  inundation. 
The  great  colossus  marks  the  site  of  the  main  entrance  to  the 
Temple  of  Ptah.  It  lies  where  it  fell,  and  no  man  has  moved 
it.  That  tranquil  sheet  of  palm-fringed  back-water,  beyond 
which  we  catch  a  distant  glimpse  of  the  pyramids  of  Gizeh, 
occupies  the  basin  of  a  vast  artificial  lake  excavated  by  Mena. 

"  No  capital  in  the  world  dates  so  far  back  as  this  or  kept 
its  place  in  history  so  long.  Founded  four  thousand  years 
before  our  era,  it  beheld  the  rise  and  fall  of  thirty-one  dynasties ; 
it  survived  the  rule  of  the  Persians,  the  Greek  and  the  Roman ; 
it  was,  even  in  its  decadence,  second  only  to  Alexandria  in 
population  and  extent;  and  it  continued  to  be  inhabited  up  to 
the  time  of  the  Arab  invasion.  It  then  became  the  quarry  from 
which  old  Cairo  was  built;  and  as  the  new  city  rose  on  the 
eastern  bank  the  people  of  Memphis  quickly  abandoned  their 
ancient  capital  to  desolation  and  decay.     .     .     . 

"  Memphis  is  a  place  to  read  about,  and  think  about,  and 
remember;  but  it  is  a  disappointing  place  to  see.  To  miss  it, 
however,  would  be  to  miss  the  first  link  in  the  whole  chain  of 
monumental  history  which  unites  the  Egypt  of  antiquity  with 
the  world  of  today.  Those  melancholy  mounds  and  that  heron- 
haunted  lake  must  be  seen,  if  only  that  they  may  take  their  due 
place  in  the  picture  gallery  of  one's  memory." 

— A  Thousand  Miles  Up  the  Nile. 


e;gyptian   litdraturij.  iOj 


A  Hymn  to  the  God  Ra. 

Incline  thine  ear  towards  me,  thou  rising  Sun, 

Thou  who  dost  enlighten  the  two  lands  with  beauty; 

Thou  sunshine  of  mankind,  chasing  darkness  from  Egypt ! 

Thy  form  is  as  that  of  thy  father  Ra  rising  in  the  heavens. 

Thy  rays  penetrate  to  the  farthest  lands. 

When  thou  art  resting  in  thy  palace, 

Thou  hearest  the  words  of  all  countries ; 

For  indeed  thou  hast  millions  of  ears ; 

Thine  eye  is  clearer  than  the  stars  of  heaven; 

Thou  seest  farther  than  the  Sun. 

If  I  speak  afar  off,  thine  ear  hears; 

If  I  do  a  hidden  deed,  thine  eye  sees  it. 

O  Ra,  richest  of  beings,  chosen  of  Ra, 

Thou  king  of  beauty,  giving  breath  to  all." 


164  THE    world's   progress 

?   XtSi^       ^  ^  tn  J 

*■»    «     fl!      -^   -       *• 


itil  noKui 


AN  OLD  KINGDOM  BOOK 
OF  PROVERBS. 

There  is  preserved  in  the  Biblio- 
theque  Nationale  at  Paris,  a  papyrus 
roll,  which  was  discovered  at  Thebes 
by  M.  Prisse,  and  is  now  distinguished 
by  his  name.  It  was  first  described  in 
1657  by  M.  Chabas.  The  papyrus  dates 
from  the  beginning  of  the  Middle  King^ 
dom  (Ca.  2100  b.  c),  and  belongs  to  the  rather  extensive  didactic  litera- 
ture of  the  Egyptians.  According  to  the  Egyptian  custom,  the  words  of  the 
book  were  put  into  the  mouth  of  a  sage  of  the  olden  time,  Ptah-hotep  by 
name,  who  was  said  to  have  lived  in  the  time  of  King  Assa  of  the  Fifth 
Dynasty  (Ca.  2600  b.  c.)-  There  is  no  reason  for  doubting  the  correct- 
ness of  the  tradition.  Of  course  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  all  of  the 
proverbs  really  go  back  to  Ptah-hotep.  The  author  is  stated  to  have  been 
110  years  old,  and  his  book  opens  with  a  remarkable  description  of  old 
age.  It  proceeds  in  a  style  which  recalls  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon,  the 
Greek  didactic  poems,  and  even  the  homely  "Poor  Richard."  It  inculcates 
obedience,  diligence,  patience,  and  other  virtues  belonging  to  an  official 
or  servant.  The  Papyrus  Prisse  also  contains  the  Proverbs  of  Kagemni, 
vizier  of  King  Snefru  (Ca.  2900  b.  c.)  of  the  Fourth  Dynasty. 


Precepts  of  Ptah-Hotep. 

The  words  of  the  Lord  Prefect  Ptah-Hotep,  who  lived  In 
the  reign  of  Assa,  King  of  Northern  and  Southern  Egypt, 
who  liveth  forever. 

Thus  saith  the  Lord  Ptah-Hotep  :  O  Lord  Osiris,  whose 
feet  are  upon  the  crocodiles  ! 

A  man  waxeth  old,  his  strength  decayeth,  he  getteth  in 
years,  his  youth  fadeth  away : 

Day  by  day  the  heart  of  an  old  man  fainteth  and  is 
troubled : 


EGYPTIAN    UTERATURK.  165 

His  eyes  see  not,  his  ears  hear  not,  his  power  is  lessened 
and  abated: 

Behold,  his  month  speaketh  not  as  of  yore,  his  mind  is 
feeble,  and  reniembereth  not  the  deeds  of  yesterday: 

Yea,  his  whole  body  is  afflicted,  good  is  to  him  as  evil,  his 
tongue  savoreth  no  longer. 

Alas,  the  old  age  of  a  man  is  full  of  misery,  his  nostrils 
drink  not  the  breath  of  heaven,  his  lungs  wax  feeble,  he  de- 
lighteth  neither  to  stand  nor  to  be  seated. 

Who  shall  give  unto  my  tongue  authority  to  utter  unto 
the  young  men  the  counsels  from  of  old  ?  or  who  vouchsafeth 
unto  me  to  declare  the  counsels  received  from  on  high  ? 

O  Lord  Osiris,  let  thy  favor  be  poured  out  upon  thy  ser- 
vant, and  suffer  that  these  evils  be  removed  from  those  who 
are  unenlightened. 

Then  answered  the  Lord  Osiris  and  said:  Instruct  them 
in  the  counsels  from  of  old ;  for  verily,  wisdom  from  of  old 
maketh  the  weak  strong ;  knowledge  giveth  freedom  to  him 
that  heareth  ;  wisdom  cries  aloud,  and  the  ear  is  not  satisfied 
with  hearing. 

Here  beginneth  the  book  of  the  wise  sayings  of  the  Lord 
Prefect  Ptah-Hotep,  the  first-born,  the  son  of  the  King,  the 
well-beloved  of  the  Lord  : 

That  the  ignorant  and  the  foolish  may  be  instructed  in  the 
understanding  of  wisdom. 

Wlioso  giveth  ear,  to  him  shall  these  words  be  as  riches; 

To  him  who  heedeth  them  not,  to  the  same  shall  come 
emptiness  forever. 

Thus  speaketh  he,  giviug  counsel  unto  his  son. 

Be  not  thou  puffed  up.  with  thy  learning ;  honor  the  wise, 
neither  withhold  thou  honor  from  the  simple. 

The  gates  of  art  are  closed  unto  none ;  whoso  entereth 
thereat,  though  he  seeketh  perfection,  yet  shall  he  not  find  it. 

But  the  words  of  wisdom  are  hid,  even  as  the  emerald  is 
hid  in  the  earth,  and  adamant  in  the  rock,  which  the  slave 
diggeth  up. 

Yield  unto  him  whose  strength  is  more  than  thine,  who 
falleth  upon  thee  in  anger :  be  not  thou  inflamed,  neither  lay 
thy  hands  upon  him ;  so  shalt  thou  escape  calamity. 


i66  THE  world's  progress. 

He  is  froward,  it  shall  not  profit  thee  to  contend  against 
him ;  be  contained,  and  when  he  rageth  against  thee,  oppose 
him  not ;  so  in  the  end  shalt  thou  prevail  over  him. 

If  one  rail  against  thee,  and  flout  thee,  answer  him  not 
again,  but  be  as  one  who  cannot  be  moved;  even  so  shalt 
thou  overcome  him.  For  the  bystanders  shall  declare  that  he 
who,  being  provoked,  holdeth  his  tongue,  is  greater  than  he 
who  provoketh  ;  and  thou  shalt  be  honored  of  those  who  have 
understanding. 

If  thou  do  evil,  being  thereto  commanded  by  one  having 
authority  over  thee,  the  gods  shall  not  condemn  thee. 

Know  the  master,  and  the  slave:  be  not  froward:  obey 
and  reverence  him  to  whom  is  given  dominion  over  thee: 

None  may  know  adversity,  when  it  cometh,  nor  prosperity, 
when  it  shall  relieve  him,  for  the  will  of  fate  is  hid 
from  all : 

But  he  that  abuseth  his  servant  shall  be  confounded,  and 
God  who  gave  him  authority  shall  suddenly  take  it  away; 
and  g^eat  shall  be  his  overthrow. 

Be  diligent,  and  do  more  than  thy  master  commandeth 
thee ;  for  the  slothful  servant  shall  be  discomfited,  and  he 
that  is  idle  shall  be  chidden. 

See  thou  neglect  not  thy  household;  if  thou  find  oppor- 
tunity to  increase  thy  wealth  improve  it ;  business  begetteth 
business,  but  poverty  is  the  lot  of  the  slothful. 

The  wise  traineth  his  child  to  walk  devoutly  and  to  serve 
the  Lord ;  he  maketh  him  obey  his  law,  and  do  that  which  is 
bidden  ;  so  shall  the  love  of  the  father  be  justified. 

The  son  of  a  man  is  flesh  of  his  flesh  and  bone  of  his  bone  ; 
let  not  thy  heart  be  cold  towards  him.  But  if  he  be  froward, 
and  transgress  thy  law,  and,  being  tempted  of  evil,  turn  him- 
self from  thy  instruction,  then  do  thou  smite  the  mouth  that 
smote  thee. 

Delay  not  to  bring  the  erring  to  obedience,  and  to  chastise 
the  rebellious ;  so  shall  he  not  stray  from  the  path  of  right- 
eousness, nor  stumble  among  pitfalls. 

Hide  not  thy  path,  let  not  thy  way  be  hidden;  though 
thou  stand  in  the  council  of  thy  master,  declare  the  truth  that 
is  in  thee. 


EGYPTIAN    LITERATURE.  I67 

Be  not  as  those  who  go  backward,  who  eat  the  words  of 
their  own  mouth,  lest  peradventure  they  offend: 

Be  not  like  unto  them;  feigners,  answering,  He  that  per- 
ceiveth  the  error  of  others,  the  same  is  wise:  when  the  wise 
man  uplifteth  his  voice  against  error,  deny  him  not,  but  keep 
silence ;  for  surely  none  but  the  wise  have  understanding. 

If  thou  be  wise  guard  thy  house:  honor  thy  wife,  and  love 
her  exceedingly :  feed  her  belly  and  clothe  her  back,  for  this 
is  the  duty  of  a  husband. 

Give  her  abundance  of  ointment,  fail  not  each  day  to 
caress  her,  let  the  desire  of  her  heart  be  fulfilled:  for  verily 
he  that  is  kind  to  his  wife  and  honoreth  her,  the  same  hon- 
oreth  himself. 

Withhold  thy  hand  from  violence,  and  thy  heart  from 
cruelty  ;  softly  entreat  her  and  win  her  to  thy  way  ;  consider 
her  desires,  and  deny  not  the  wish  of  her  heart. 

Thus  shalt  thou  keep  her  heart  from  wandering;  but  if 
thou  harden  thyself  against  her,  she  will  turn  from  thee. 
Speak  to  her,  yield  her  thy  love,  she  will  have  respect  unto 
thee  ;  open  thy  arms,  she  will  come  unto  thee. 

Blessed  is  the  son  who  gives  ear  to  the  instruction  of  his 
father,  for  he  shall  escape  error. 

Train  thou  thy  son  to  obedience  ;  his  wisdom  shall  be 
pleasing  unto  the  great. 

Let  his  mouth  have  respect  to  thy  sayings  ;  by  obedience 
shall  his  wisdom  be  established.  Day  by  day  shall  his  walk 
be  perfect ;  but  error  shall  be  the  destruction  of  fools.  The 
ignorant  and  the  froward  shall  be  overthrown,  but  knowledge 
shall  uplift  the  wise. 

He  that  lacketh  prudence  and  inclineth  not  his  ear  to  in- 
struction, the  same  worketh  no  good.  He  thinketh  to  dis- 
cover knowledge  in  ignorance,  and  gain  in  that  which  profiteth 
nothing  ;  he  runneth  to  mischief,  and  wandereth  in  error, 
choosing  those  things  which  are  rejected  of  the  prudent ;  so 
subsisteth  he  on  that  which  perisheth,  and  filleth  his  belly 
with  the  words  of  evil.  Yea,  he  is  brought  to  shame,  seeking 
to  be  nourished  with  whatsoever  the  wise  hold  in  abomina- 
tion, shunning  profitable  things,  led  astray  by  much  foolish- 
ness. 


THE   WORU)'S   PROGRESS. 


/f-X- 


The  Voyage  of  the  Soul. 

In  the   15th   chapter  of  "The  Book  of  the 
-^ft    Dead  "  we  find  an  account  of  the  passage  of  the 
^    soul  in  a  boat  across  the  firmament,  to  the  abode 
of  the  blessed. 

This  fable  reappears  in  the  religious  writings 
of  other  nations,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  Greek 
story  of  Charon,  ferrying  departed  spirits  across  the  Stj'x,  and  in  the 
traditions  of  the  ancient  Mexicans.  The  soul  is  called  by  the  Egyp- 
tians Osiris,  in  connection  with  the  proper  name  of  the  individual  {N), 
to  indicate  that  the  latter  already  partakes  of  the  divine  nature.  Ra  is 
the  sun-god,  approaching  the  west.  The  following  translation  is  by 
P.  Le  Page  Renouf : 

Here  is  the  Osiris  N. 

Come  forth  into  Heaven,  sail  across  the  firmament  and 
enter  into  brotherhood  with  the  stars,  let  salutation  be  made 
to  thee  in  the  bark,  let  invocation  be  made  to  thee  in  the 
morning  bark.  Contemplate  Ra  within  his  Ark,  and  do  thou 
propitiate  his  orb  daily.  See  the  fish  in  its  birth  from  the 
emerald  stream,  and  see  the  tortoise  and  its  rotations.  Let 
the  oifender  (the  dragon)  fall  prostrate,  when  he  meditates 
destruction  for  me,  by  blows  on  his  backbone. 

Ra  springs  forth  with  a  fair  wind  ;  the  evening  bark  speeds 
on  and  reaches  the  Haven.  The  crew  of  Ra  are  in  exultation 
when  they  look  upon  him ;  the  Mistress  of  Life,  her  heart  is 
lelighted  at  the  overthrow  of  the  adversary  of  her  Lord. 

See  thou  Horus  at  the  look-out  at  the  bow,  and  at  his 
sides  Thoth  and  Maat.  All  the  gods  are  in  exultation  when 
they  behold  Ra  coming  in  peace  to  give  new  life  to  the  hearts 
of  the  Chu,  and  here  is  the  Osiris  W  along  with  them. 

[Litany.'] 

Adored  be  Ra,  as  he  setteth  in  the  land  of  Life. 
3ail  to  thee,  who  hast  come  as  Tmu,  and  hast  been  the  creator  of 
the  cycle  of  the  sjods. 


EGYPTIAN    LITERATURE.  l6g 

Give  thou  delicious  breezes  of  the  7iorth  wind  to  the  Osiris  JV. 
Hail  to  thee,  who  hast  come  as  the  Soul  of  souls,  revered  in 

Amenta, 
Hail  to  thee,  who  art  above  the  gods,  and  who  lightenest  up  Tuat 

with  thy  glories. 
Hail  to  thee,  who  comest  in  splendor,  and  goest  around  in  thine 

orb, 
Hail  to  thee,  who  art  mightier  than  the  gods,  who  art  crowned 

in  Heaven  and  King  in  Tuat, 
Hail  to  thee,  who  openest  the  Tuat  and  disposest  of  all  its  doors, 
Hail  to  thee,  supreme  among  the  gods,  and  weigher  of  words  in 

the  nether  world, 
Hail  to  thee,  who  art  in  thy  Nest,  and  stirrest  the  Tuat  with  thy 

glory, 
Hail  to  thee,  the  great,  the  mighty,  whose  enemies  are  laid  pros- 
trate at  their  blocks, 
Hail  to  thee,  who  slaughterest  the  Sebau  and  annihilatest  Apepi 

(the  dragon). 

[After  each  invocation,  the  italicized  line  is  repeated.] 

Horus  openetli :  the  Great,  the  Mighty,  who  divideth  the 
earths,  the  Great  One  who  resteth  in  the  Mountain  of  the 
West,  and  brighteneth  up  the  Tuat  with  his  glories  and  the 
Souls  in  their  hidden  abode,  by  shining  into  their  sepulchres. 

By  hurling  harm  against  the  foe  thou  hast  utterly  de- 
stroyed all  the  adversaries  of  the  Osiris  JV. 

The  Soul's  Declaration  of  Innocence. 

This  declaration  was  to  be  made  by  the  soul  in  the  Judgment  Hall 
of  Osiris  in  the  presence  of  the  council  of  forty-two  gods.  The  heart 
being  weighed  against  the  symbol  of  truth  and  found  correct  was  then 
restored  to  the  deceased  who  entered  upon  the  life  of  the  blessed. 

"  O  ye  lyords  of  ^Truth  }     I  have  brought  you  truth. 
I  have  not  privily  done  evil  against  mankind. 
I  have  not  afflicted  the  miserable. 
I  have  not  told  falsehoods. 
I  have  had  no  acquaintance  with  sin. 

I  have  not  made  tlie  laboring  man  do  more  than  his  daily  task. 
I  have  not  been  idle. 
I  have  not  been  intoxicated. 


I/O 


THl^   WORU)'S   PROGRESS 


I  have  not  been  immoral. 

I  have  not  calumniated  a  slave  to  his  master. 

I  have  not  caused  hunger. 

I  have  not  made  to  weep. 

I  have  not  murdered. 

I  have  not  defrauded. 

"  I  have  not  eaten  the  sacred  bread  in  the  temples. 
I  have  not  cheated  in  the  weight  of  the  balance. 
I  have  not  withheld  milk  from  the  mouths  of  sucldings^ 
I  have  not  slandered  any  one. 
I  have  not  netted  sacred  birds. 
I  have  not  caught  the  fish  which  typify  them. 
I  have  not  stopped  running  water. 
I  have  not  robbed  the  gods  of  their  offered  haunches. 
I  have  not  stopped  a  god  from  his  manifestation. 
I  have  made  to  the  gods  the  offerings  that  were  their  due. 
I  have  given  food  to  the  hungr>',  drink  to  the  thirsty,  and  clothes 

to  the  naked. 
I  am  pure  I     I  am  pure  I  '* 


WEIGHING  THK  HEART  IN  THE  JUDGMENT  HALL  OF  OSIRIS. 


EGYPTIAN  LITERATURE.  I7I 

THE  ADVENTURES  OF  THE  EXILE  SANEHAT.* 
(2000  B.C.) 

The  fact  that  three  copies  of  this  tale  have  been  found  indicates  thai 
it  was  popular.  Sanehat  was  a  high  official,  and  probably  a  member  of 
the  royal  family ;  but  on  the  death  of  King  Amenemhet,  the  founder 
of  the  twelfth  dynasty,  Sanehat,  fearing  for  his  life,  fled  to  Syria  and 
lived  there  many  years.  In  his  old  age  he  desired  to  return,  that  he 
might  die  in  his  native  land.  The  narrative  was  probably  prepared  for 
inscription  on  the  wall  of  his  tomb.  The  translation  is  from  W.  M. 
Flinders  Petrie's  "  Egyptian  Tales." 

IN  the  thirtieth  year,  the  month  Paophi,  the 
seventh  day,  the  god  entered 
his  horizon,  the  King  vSehotep- 
abra  flew  up  to  heaven  and 
joined  the  sun's  disc,  the  fol- 
lower of  the  god  met  his  maker. 
The  palace  was  silenced,  and  in 
mourning,  the  great  gates  were 
closed,  the  courtiers  crouching 
on  the  ground,  the  people  in 
hushed  mourning. 

His  majesty  had  sent  a  great 
army  with  the  nobles  to  the 
land  of  the  Temehu  (Libya),  his 
son  and  heir,  the  good  god, 
King  Usertesen,^  as  their  leader. 
Now  he  was  returning,  and  had 
brought  away  living  captives  and  all  kinds  of  cattle  without 
end.  The  councillors  of  the  palace  had  sent  to  the  West  to 
let  the  king  know  the  matter  that  had  come  to  pass  in  the 
inner  hall.  The  messenger  was  to  meet  him  on  the  road,  and 
reach  him  at  the  time  of  evening:  the  matter  was  urgent. 
*'  A  hawk  had  soared  with  his  followers."  Thus  said  he,  not 
to  let  the  army  know  of  it.  Even  if  the  royal  sons  who 
commanded  in  that  army  sent  a  message,  he  was  not  to  speak 
to  a  single  one  of  them. 

But  I  was  standing  near,  and  heard  his  voice  while  he  was 
speaking.     I  fled  far  away,  my  heart  beating,  my  arms  fail- 

'  More  correctly  rendered  as  Sinuhe. 
■  Sesostris. 


»72  THE  world's   progress. 

ing,  trembling  had  fallen  on  all  my  limbs.  I  turned  about  in 
running  to  seek  a  place  to  hide  me,  and  I  threw  myself  be- 
tween two  bushes,  to  wait  while  they  should  pass  by.  Then 
I  turned  me  toward  the  south,  not  wishing  to  come  into  this 
palace — for  I  knew  not  if  war  was  declared — nor  even  think- 
ing a  wish  to  live  after  this  sovereign.  I  turned  my  back 
to  the  sycamore,  I  reached  Shi-Seneferu,  and  rested  on  the 
open  field.  In  the  morning  I  went  on  and  overtook  a  man, 
who  passed  by  the  edge  of  the  road.  He  asked  of  me  me^^cy, 
for  he  feared  me.  By  the  evening  I  drew  near  to  Kher-ahau 
(Cairo)  and  I  crossed  the  river  on  a  raft  without  a  rudder.  Car- 
ried by  the  west  wind,  I  passed  over  to  the  east  to  the  quarries 
of  Aku  and  the  land  of  the  goddess  Herit,  mistress  of  the  red 
mountain.  Then  I  fled  on  foot,  northward,  and  reached  the 
walls  of  the  prince,  built  to  repel  the  Sati.  I  crouched  in  a 
bush  for  fear  of  being  seen  by  the  guards,  changed  each  day, 
who  watch  on  the  top  of  the  fortress.  I  took  my  way  by 
night,  and  at  the  lighting  of  the  day  I  reached  Peten,  and 
turned  me  toward  the  valley  of  Kemur.  Then  thirst  hasted 
me  on  ;  I  dried  up,  and  my  throat  narrowed,  and  I  said, 
"  This  is  the  taste  of  death." 

When  I  lifted  up  my  heart  and  gathered  strength,  I  heard 
a  voice  and  the  lowing  of  cattle.  I  saw  men  of  the  Sati,  and 
one  of  them — a  friend  unto  Egypt — knew  me.  He  gave  me 
water  and  boiled  milk,  and  I  went  with  him  to  his  camp ; 
they  did  me  good,  and  one  tribe  passed  me  on  to  another.  I 
passed  on  to  Sun,  and  reached  the  land  of  Adim  (Edom). 

When  I  had  dwelt  there  half  a  year  Amu-an-shi — who  is 
the  prince  of  the  Upper  Tenu — sent  for  me  and  said  :  ' '  Dwell 
thou  with  me  that  thou  mayest  hear  the  speech  of  Egypt. ' ' 
He  said  thus  for  that  he  knew  of  my  excellence,  and  had 
heard  tell  of  my  worth,  for  men  of  Egypt  who  were  there 
with  him  oore  witness  of  me.  Behold  he  said  to  me,  "For 
what  cause  hast  thou  come  hither  ?  Has  a  matter  come  to 
pass  in  the  palace  ?  Has  the  king  of  the  two  lands,  Sehetep- 
abra,  gone  to  heaven?  What  has  happened  about  this  is 
not  known."  But  I  answered  with  concealment,  and  said, 
"  When  I  came  from  the  land  of  the  Temehu,  and  my  desires 
were  there  changed  in  me,  if  I  fled  away  it  was  not  by  reason 


Copyright  by  Underwood   &  Underwood,   N.   Y. 

Harem  Window  and  Court. 


EGYPTIAN    LITERATURE.  173 

of  remorse  that  I  took  the  way  of  a  fugitive;  I  have  not 
failed  in  my  duty,  my  mouth  has  not  said  any  bitter  words,  I 
have  not  heard  any  evil  counsel,  my  name  has  not  come  into 
the  mouth  of  a  magistrate.  I  know  not  by  what  I  have  been 
led  into  this  land."  And  Amu-an-shi  said,  "This  is  by  the 
will  of  the  god  (King  of  Egypt),  for  what  is  a  land  like,  if  it 
know  not  that  excellent  god,  of  whom  the  dread  is  upon  the 
lands  of  strangers,  as  they  dread  Sekhet  in  a  year  of  pesti- 
lence?" I  spake  to  him,  and  replied,  "Forgive  me,  his  son 
now  enters  the  palace,  and  has  received  the  heritage  of  his 
father.  He  is  a  god  who  has  none  like  him,  and  there  is  none 
before  him.  He  is  a  master  of  wisdom,  prudent  in  his  de- 
signs, excellent  in  his  decrees,  with  good-will  to  him  who 
goes  or  who  comes  ;  he  subdued  the  land  of  strangers  while 
his  father  yet  lived  in  his  palace,  and  he  rendered  account  of 
that  which  his  father  destined  him  to  perform.  A  king,  he  has 
ruled  from  his  birth ;  he,  from  his  birth,  has  increased  births, 
a  sole  being,  a  divine  essence,  by  whom  this  land  rejoices  to 
be  governed.  He  enlarges  the  borders  of  the  South  ;  but  he 
covets  not  the  lands  of  the  North  ;  he  does  not  smite  the  Sati, 
nor  crush  the  Nemau-shau.  If  he  descends  here,  let  him 
know  thy  name,  by  the  homage  which  thou  wilt  pay  to  his 
majesty.  For  he  refuses  not  to  bless  the  land  which  obeys 
him." 

And  he  replied  to  me,  "  Egypt  is  indeed  happy  and  well 
settled  ;  behold  thou  art  far  from  it,  but  whilst  thou  art  with 
me  I  will  do  good  unto  thee."  And  he  placed  me  before  his 
children,  he  married  his  eldest  daughter  to  me,  and  gave  me 
the  choice  of  all  his  land,  even  among  the  best  of  that  which 
he  had  on  the  border  of  the  next  land.  It  is  a  goodly  land  ; 
laa  is  its  name.  There  are  figs  and  grapes;  there  is  wine 
commoner  than  water ;  abundant  is  the  honey,  many  are  its 
olives ;  and  all  fruits  are  upon  its  trees ;  there  is  barley  and 
wheat,  and  cattle  of  kinds  without  end.  This  was  truly  a 
great  thing  that  he  granted  me,  when  the  prince  came  to 
invest  me,  and  establish  me  as  prince  of  a  tribe  in  the  best  of 
his  land.  I  had  my  continual  portion  of  bread  and  of  wine 
each  day,  of  cooked  meat,  of  roasted  fowl,  as  well  as  the  wild 
game  which  I  took,  or  which  was  brought  to  me,  besides  what 

1—13 


174  THE  WORU)'S  PROGRESS. 

my  dogs  captured.  They  made  me  much  butter,  and  prepared 
milk  of  all  kinds.  I  passed  many  years,  the  children  that  I 
had  became  great,  each  ruling  his  tribe.  When  a  messenger 
went  or  came  to  the  palace,  he  turned  aside  from  the  way  to 
come  to  me ;  for  I  helped  every  man.  I  gave  water  to  the 
thirsty,  I  set  on  his  way  him  who  went  astray,  and  I  rescued 
the  robbed.  The  Sati  who  went  far,  to  strike  and  turn  back 
the  princes  of  other  lands,  I  ordained  their  goings ;  for  the 
Prince  of  the  Tenu  for  many  years  appointed  me  to  be  general 
of  his  soldiers.  In  every  land  which  I  attacked  I  played  the 
champion,  I  took  the  cattle,  I  led  away  the  vassals,  I  carried 
oflf  the  slaves,  I  slew  the  people,  by  my  sword,  my  bow,  my 
marches  and  my  good  devices.  I  was  excellent  to  the  heart 
of  my  prince  ;  he  loved  me  when  he  knew  my  power,  and  set 
me  over  his  children  when  he  saw  the  strength  of  my  arms. 

A  champion  of  the  Tenu  came  to  defy  me  in  my  tent :  a 
bold  man  without  equal,  for  he  had  vanquished  the  whole 
country.  He  said,  "Let  Sanehat  fight  with  me;"  for  he 
desired  to  overthrow  me,  he  thought  to  take  my  cattle  for  his 
tribe.  The  prince  counseled  with  me.  I  said,  "  I  know  him 
not  I  certainly  am  not  of  his  degree,  I  hold  me  far  from  his 
place.  Have  I  ever  opened  his  door,  or  leaped  over  his  fence  ? 
It  is  some  envious  jealousy  from  seeing  me ;  does  he  think 
that  I  am  like  some  steer  among  the  cows,  whom  the  bull 
overthrows  ?  If  this  is  a  wretch  who  thinks  to  enrich  himself 
at  my  cost,  not  a  Bedawi  fit  for  fight,  then  let  us  put  the 
matter  to  judgment.  Verily  a  true  bull  loves  battle,  but  a 
vain-glorious  bull  turns  his  back  for  fear  of  contest ;  if  he  has 
a  heart  for  combat,  let  him  speak  what  he  pleases.  Will  God 
forget  what  he  has  ordained,  and  how  shall  that  be  known?" 
I  lay  down  ;  and  when  I  had  rested  I  strung  my  bow,  I  made 
ready  my  arrows,  I  loosened  my  dagger,  I  furbished  my 
arms. 

At  dawn  the  land  of  the  Tenu  came  together;  it  had 
gathered  its  tribes  and  called  all  the  neighboring  people  ;  it 
spake  of  nothing  but  the  fight.  Each  heart  burnt  for  me, 
men  and  women  crying  out ;  for  each  heart  was  troubled  for 
me,  and  they  said,  **  Is  there  another  strong  one  who  would 
fight  with  him  ?    Behold  the  adversary  has  a  buckler,  a  battle- 


EGYPTIAN    LITERATURE.  175 

axe,  and  an  armful  of  javelins."  Then  I  drew  him  to  the 
attack ;  I  turned  aside  his  arrows,  and  they  struck  the  ground 
in  vain.  One  drew  near  to  the  other,  and  he  fell  on  me,  and 
then  I  shot  him.  My  arrow  fastened  in  his  neck,  he  cried  out, 
and  fell  on  his  face :  I  drove  his  lance  into  him,  and  raised  my 
shout  of  victory  on  his  back.  Whilst  all  the  men  of  the  land 
rejoiced,  I,  and  his  vassals  whom  he  had  oppressed,  gave 
thanks  unto  Mentu  (the  god  of  war).  This  prince,  Amu-an-shi, 
embraced  me.  Then  I  carried  off  his  goods  and  took  his 
cattle,  that  which  he  had  wished  to  do  to  me,  I  did  even  so 
unto  him  ;  I  seized  that  which  was  in  his  tent,  I  spoiled  his 
dwelling.  As  time  went  on  I  increased  the  richness  of  my 
treasures  and  the  number  of  my  cattle.  .  .  . 

[But  at  last  the  exile  desired  to  return  to  his  native  land, 
and  sent  a  petition  to  the  King  of  Egypt,  asking  permission.] 

Then  the  majesty  of  King  Kheper-ka-ra,  the  blessed, 
spake  upon  this  my  desire  that  I  had  made  to  him.  His 
majesty  sent  unto  me  with  presents  from  the  king,  that  he 
might  enlarge  the  heart  of  his  servant,  like  unto  the  province 
of  any  strange  land ;  and  the  royal  sons  who  are  in  the  palace 
addressed  themselves  unto  me. 

Copy  of  the  decree  which  was  brought  to  lead  me  back  into  Egypt. 

"The  Horus,  life  of  births,  lord  of  the  two  crowns,  King 
of  Upper  and  I/)wer  Egypt,  Kheper-ka-ra,  son  of  the  Sun, 
Amen-em-hat,  ever  living  imto  eternity.  Order  for  the  follower 
Sanehat.  Behold  this  order  of  the  king  is  sent  to  thee  to  instruct 
thee  of  his  will. 

"  Now,  although  thou  hast  gone  through  strange  lands  from 
Adim  to  Tenu,  and  passed  from  one  country  to  another  at  the 
wish  of  thy  heart — behold,  what  hast  thou  done,  or  what  has  been 
done  against  thee,  that  is  amiss  ?  Moreover,  thou  reviledst  not ; 
but  if  thy  word  was  denied,  thou  didst  not  speak  again  in  the 
assembly  of  the  nobles,  even  if  thou  wast  desired.  Now,  there- 
fore, that  thou  hast  thought  on  this  matter  which  has  come  to 
thy  mind,  let  thy  heart  not  change  again;  for  this  thy  Heaven 
(queen),  who  is  in  the  palace  is  fixed,  she  is  flourishing,  she  is 
enjoying  the  best  in  the  kingdom  of  the  land,  and  her  children 
are  in  the  chambers  of  the  palace. 

'*  I^eave  all  the  riches  that  thou  hast,  and  that  are  with  thee. 


176  THE  world's  progress. 

altogether.  When  thou  shalt  come  into  Egypt  behold  the  palace, 
and  when  thou  shalt  enter  the  palace,  bow  thy  face  to  the  ground 
before  the  Great  House ;  thou  shalt  be  chief  among  the  com- 
panions. And  day  by  day  behold  thou  growest  old  ;  thy  vigor  is 
lost,  and  thou  thinkest  on  the  day  of  burial.  Thou  shalt  see 
thyself  come  to  the  blessed  state,  they  shall  give  thee  the  band- 
ages from  the  hand  of  Tait,  the  night  of  applying  the  oil  of  em- 
balming. They  shall  follow  thy  funeral,  and  visit  the  tomb  on 
the  day  of  burial,  which  shall  be  in  a  gilded  case,  the  head 
painted  with  blue,  a  canopy  of  cypress  wood  above  thee,  and  oxen 
shall  draw  thee,  the  singers  going  before  thee,  and  they  shall 
dance  the  funeral  dance.  The  weepers  crouching  at  the  door  of 
thy  tomb  shall  cry  aloud  the  prayers  for  oflferings :  they  shall  slay 
victims  for  thee  at  the  door  of  thy  pit ;  and  thy  pyramid  shall  be 
carved  in  white  stone,  in  the  company  of  the  royal  children. 
Thus  thou  shalt  not  die  in  a  strange  land,  nor  be  buried  by  the 
Amu ;  thou  shalt  not  be  laid  in  a  sheep-skin  when  thou  art 
buried  ;  all  people  shall  beat  the  earth,  and  lament  on  thy  body 
when  thou  goest  to  the  tomb." 

When  this  order  came  to  me,  I  was  in  the  midst  of  my 
tribe.  When  it  was  read  unto  me,  I  threw  me  on  the  dust,  I 
threw  dust  in  my  hair ;  I  went  around  my  tent  rejoicing  and 
saying,  ''  How  may  it  be  that  such  a  thing  is  done  to  the  ser- 
vant, who  with  a  rebellious  heart  has  fled  to  strange  lands  ? 
Now  with  an  excellent  deliverance,  and  mercy  delivering  me 
from  death,  thou  shalt  cause  me  to  end  my  days  in  the  palace. ' ' 

I  made  a  feast  in  laa,  to  pass  over  my  goods  to  my  chil- 
dren. My  eldest  son  was  leading  my  tribe,  all  my  goods 
passed  to  him,  and  I  gave  him  my  corn  and  all  my  cattle,  my 
fruit,  and  all  my  pleasant  trees.  When  I  had  taken  my  road 
to  the  south,  and  arrived  at  the  roads  of  Horus,  the  officer 
who  was  over  the  garrison  sent  a  messenger  to  the  palace  to 
give  notice.  His  majesty  sent  the  good  overseer  of  the 
peasants  of  the  king's  domains,  and  boats  laden  with  presents 
from  the  king  for  the  Sati  who  had  come  to  conduct  me  to 
the  roads  of  Horus.  I  spoke  to  each  one  by  his  name,  and  I 
gave  the  presents  to  each  as  was  intended.  I  received  and  I 
returned  the  salutation  and  I  continued  thus  until  I  reached 
the  city  of  Thetu  (Thebes). 


EGYPTIAN    UTERATURE.  177 

When  the  land  was  brightened,  and  the  new  day  began, 
four  men  came  with  a  summons  for  me ;  and  the  four  men 
went  to  lead  me  to  the  palace.  I  saluted  with  both  my  hands 
on  the  ground ;  the  royal  children  stood  at  the  courtyard  to 
conduct  me :  the  courtiers  who  were  to  lead  me  to  the  hall 
brought  me  on  the  way  to  the  royal  chamber. 

I  found  his  majesty  on  the  great  throne  in  the  hall  of  pale 
gold.  Then  I  threw  myself  on  the  ground ;  this  god,  in 
whose  presence  I  was,  knew  me  not.  He  questioned  me 
graciously,  but  I  was  as  one  seized  with  blindness,  my  spirit 
fainted,  my  limbs  failed,  my  heart  was  no  longer  in  my 
bosom,  and  I  knew  the  difference  between  life  and  death. 
His  majesty  said  to  one  of  the  companions,  "  Lift  him  up,  let 
him  speak  to  me. ' ' 

The  royal  children  were  brought  in,  and  his  majesty  said 
to  the  queen,  *'  Behold,  Sanehat  has  come  as  an  Amu,  whom 
the  Sati  have  produced." 

She  cried  aloud,  and  the  royal  children  spake  with  one 
voice,  saying  before  his  majesty,  "Verily  it  is  not  so,  O 
king,  my  lord. ' '  Said  his  majesty,  "  It  is  verily  he. ' '  Then 
they  brought  their  collars,  and  their  wands,  and  their  sistra  * 
in  their  hands,  and  displayed  them  before  his  majesty ;  and 
they  sang — 

"  May  thy  hands  prosper,  O  king: ; 
May  the  ornaments  of  the  Lady  of  Heaven  continue. 
May  the  goddess  Nub  g:ive  life  to  thy  nostril  ; 
May  the  mistress  of  the  stars  favor  thee,  when  thou  sailest  south 

and  north. 
All  wisdom  is  in  the  mouth  of  thy  majesty  ; 
Thy  uraeus  f  is  on  thy  forehead,  thou  drivest  away  the  miserable. 
Thou  art  pacified,  O  Ra,  lord  of  the  lands  ; 
They  call  on  thee  as  on  the  mistress  of  all. 
Strong  is  thy  horn.     Thou  lettest  fly  thine  arrow. 
Grant  the  breath  to  him  who  is  without  it  ; 

*  The  sistrum  was  a  musical  rattle,  usually  consisting  of  a  thin 
oval  metal  band,  crossed  with  metal  rods  and  having  a  handle.  See 
cut,  p.  39. 

•f  The  serpent,  with  raised,  projecting  head,  which  was  an  emblem 
of  sovereignty. 


178  THS  WOIUW)*S  PROGRESS 

Grant  good  things  to  this  traveller,  Sanehat  the  Pedti,  bora  in 
the  land  of  Egypt, 

Who  fled  away  from  fear  of  thee, 

And  fled  this  land  from  thy  terrors. 

Does  not  the  face  grow  pale,  of  him  who  beholds  thy  counte- 
nance ; 

Does  not  the  eye  fear,  which  looks  upon  thee  ?" 

Said  his  majesty,  *'  Let  him  not  fear,  let  him  be  freed  from 
terror.  He  shall  be  a  Royal  Friend  amongst  the  nobles ;  he 
shall  be  put  within  the  circle  of  the  courtiers.  Go  ye  to  the 
chamber  of  praise  to  seek  wealth  for  him." 

When  I  went  out  from  the  palace,  the  royal  children 
offered  their  hands  to  me ;  we  walked  afterwards  to  the  Great 
Gates. 

Years  were  removed  from  my  limbs:  I  was  shaved,  and 
polled  my  locks  of  hair ;  the  foulness  was  cast  to  the  desert 
with  the  garments  of  the  Nemau-shau.  I  clothed  me  in  fine 
linen,  and  anointed  myself  with  the  fine  oil  of  Egypt ;  I  laid 
me  on  a  bed.  I  gave  up  the  sand  to  those  who  lie  on  it ;  the 
oil  of  wood  to  him  who  would  anoint  himself  therewith. 
There  was  given  to  me  the  mansion  of  a  lord  of  serfs,  which 
had  belonged  to  a  royal  friend.  There  many  excellent  things 
were  in  its  buildings  ;  all  its  wood  was  renewed.  There  were 
brought  to  me  portions  from  the  palace,  thrice  and  four  times 
each  day ;  besides  the  gifts  of  the  royal  children,  always, 
without  ceasing.  There  was  built  for  me  a  pyramid  of  stone 
amongst  the  pyramids.  The  overseer  of  the  architects  mea- 
sured its  ground;  the  chief  treasurer  wrote  it;  the  sacred 
masons  cut  the  well ;  the  chief  of  the  laborers  on  the  tombs 
brought  the  bricks ;  all  things  used  to  make  strong  a  building 
were  there  used.  There  were  given  to  me  peasants ;  there  was 
made  for  me  a  garden,  and  fields  were  in  it  before  my  man- 
sion, as  is  done  for  the  chief  royal  friend.  My  statue  was 
inlaid  with  gold,  its  girdle  of  pale  gold  ;  his  majesty  caused  it 
to  be  made.     Such  honor  is  not  done  to  a  man  of  low  degree. 

May  I  be  in  the  favor  of  the  king  until  the  day  shall  come 
of  my  death. 


THE   SONG  OF  THE 
HARPER. 

(Sixteenth  century  B.C.)    . 

The  Song  of  the  Harper  was 
found  in  the  tomb  of  the  priest 
Neferhotep,  near  Thebes.  It  was 
designed  to  be  sung  on  the  anni- 
versary of  his  death.  He  is  shown 
sitting  with  his  wife,  son  and  daugh- 
ter, while  the  harper  chants.     Other 

copies  of  this  song  have  come  down  to  us.  Ra  or  Re  is  the  general  appel- 
lation of  the  Sun-god;  Ttim  or  Tmu  denotes  the  Sun  setting;  Shu  is  the 
light  of  the  Sun  in  its  life-giving  function. 


Neferhotep,  great  and  blessed,  sleepeth ;  we  protect  his  sleep. 
Since  the  day  when  Ra  began  his  race,  and  Turn  hastened  to  its 

ending,  fathers  have  gone  down  to  death,  and  children  .have 

arisen  in  their  place. 
Even  as  Ra  has  his  birth  in  the  morning,  fathers  beget  sons ; 
Even  as  Turn  begetteth  night,  mothers  conceive  and  bring  forth  ; 
The  breath  of  the  morning  is  in  a  man's  nostrils ; 
Man  that  is  born  of  a  woman  vanisheth  when  his  race  is  run. 


Holy  Father,  vouchsafe  that  the  day  return  with  blessing ; 

Smell  thou  the  fragrant  oils  that  we  pour  on  thy  altars,  receive 
the  flowers  that  we  bring  for  an  ofi"ering. 

Lo,  thy  sister  dwelleth  in  thy  heart  as  in  a  temple ; 

Give  these  lotus  flowers  into  her  arms,  place  them  in  her  bosom  ; 

Lo,  she  sitteth  at  thy  right  hand ;  let  the  harp  and  the  sound  of 
singing  be  pleasing  unto  thee,  and  drive  sorrow  away. 

Rejoice  even  unto  the  day  when  we,  pilgrims,  enter  Amenti,  wel- 
comed by  him  who  went  before  us. 

Vouchsafe,  O  Lord,  that  the  day  come  quickly; 
Pure  of  heart  and  deed  was  he  whom  we  loved: 

179 


i8o  THE  wori^d's  progress. 

The  life  of  earth  passeth  away,  even  so  passed  he  away ; 
Behold,  he  was,  and  he  is  not,  and  no  man  knoweth  his  place. 
So  hath  it  been,  since  Ra  went  forth,  O  Man,  and  so  shall  it  be 

forever. 
The  eyes  of  a  man  are  opened,  and  are  quickly  closed  again. 
His  soul  drinketh  of  the  sacred  waters,  he  drinketh  with  them 

that  are  gone  of  the  waters  of  the  River  of  Life. 

Give  unto  the  poor,  who  cry  to  thee  when  the  harvest  faileth ;  so 
shall  thy  name  be  magnified  forever. 

And  to  the  feast  of  thy  sacrifice  multitudes  shall  come,  worship- 
ping; 

And  the  priest,  clothed  with  a  panther's  skin,  shall  pour  out 
wine  unto  thee ; 

And  shall  offer  cakes,  and  sing  songs  before  thy  altars. 

In  that  day  when  thy  servants  stand  before  Ra,  the  Sun-god. 

Shu  shall  bring  forth  the  harvest  in  its  season. 

And  glory  shall  be  thine,  but  destruction  shall  overtake  the  wicked. 

Return  quickly,  O  Neferhotep,  let  the  day  of  thy  honor  return : 
L,o,  the  works  which  thou  didst  upon  earth,  thou  didst  leave  them 

in  the  day  of  thy  going  ; 
Rich  wast  thou,  but  of  thy  riches  only  these  ashes  are  left. 
In  the  day  of  thy  going  thou  tarriedst  not,  nothing  didst  thou 

save  in  that  day : 
Yea,  though  a  man  have  much  grain,  yet  the  day  of  his  poverty 

shall  come ; 
Death  regardeth  not  his  riches  ;  Death  heedeth  not  the  pride  of  a 

man. 

Friends,  the  day  of  your  going  shall  come ;  let  your  hearts  have 

understanding. 
Whither  ye  go,  thence  shall  ye  not  return  forever. 
The  upright  man  shall  prosper,  but  the  transgressor  shall  perish. 
Be  ye  just,  for  the  just  man  shall  be  blessed. 
But  neither  the  brave  man,  nor  he  that  feareth,  nor  he  that  hath 

friends,  nor  the  forsaken  one. 
None  shall  escape  the  grave,  no  man  small  prevail  against  Death. 
Vouchsafe  unto  us,  therefore,  of  thine  abundance,  and  be  thou 

blessed  forever  of  Isis. 


PRESENT-DAY  EGYPT 


A1.EXANDRIA. 

Where  East  and  West  Meet 

LEXANDRIA  is  the  great  commercial  center  of 
the  southern  Mediterranean.  Approached  from 
the  sea,  the  coast  is  so  level  that  the  city  is  not 
visible  until  the  harbor  is  almost  reached. 
Modern  docks  and  warehouses  are  crowded 
along  the  shore. 
In  spite  of  its  modern  appearance,  Alexandria  is  an  old 
city,  founded  by  Alexander  the  Great,  in  332  B.  C.  He 
evinced  his  usual  insight  and  good  judgment  in  the  site 
chosen,  it  being  sufficiently  far  west  to  escape  the  deposits 
brought  down  by  the  Nile  and  carried  to  sea  by  its  various 
outlets.  The  only  important  city  of  all  those  founded  by  the 
great  conqueror,  Alexandria  became  a  center  of  culture  and 
education.  Scholars  and  men  of  genius  were  encouraged  to 
come  here  by  the  Ptolomies,  who  were  determined  to  make 
the  place  a  second  Athens.  A  museum  was  founded  and  a 
library  established,  some  900,000  rolls  of  manuscript  being 
accumulated.  This  we  may  feel  sure  embraced  the  wealth 
of  ancient  learning. 

When  the  city  was  besieged  by  the  Romans  in  the  time 
of  Caesar,  this  priceless  collection  of  books  was  destroyed. 
The  loss  to  the  future  was  irreparable.  However,  an  earnest 
effort  was  put  forth  to  replace  as  many  as  possible  of  the 
writings,  and  for  years  scribes  copied  precious  rolls  sent  them 
from  other  educational  centers  and  from  private  collections. 
Indeed,  it  was  plainly  hinted  by  those  best  informed  that  the 
originals  were  never  returned  to  rightful  owners,  but  that 
copies  were  invariably  returned  and  the  original  kept  to  grace 
the  public  library.  When  Omar  overcame  Egypt  in  the 
seventh  century,  he  proclaimed  the  Koran  sufficient  for  all, 
saying  that  it  included  whatever  wisdom  men  needed.  Where- 
upon he  commanded  the  destruction  of  this  second  library. 


1 82  THE  world's   progress. 

It  is  recorded  that  the  contents  were  distributed  among  four 
thousand  pubhc  baths  of  Alexandria  and  that  fires  were  kept 
burning  for  six  months  before  the  books  were  consumed. 
Lovers  of  antiquity  can  never  cease  to  regret  these  two  wanton 
wastes  of  ancient  hterature. 

Pompey's  Pillar*  may  be  seen  towering  high  above  the  city 
as  one  draws  near.  While  its  significance  is  not  absolutely 
proved,  nevertheless  it  is  thought  to  have  been  erected  in  honor 
of  Diocletian  in  the  third  century.  It  is  made  of  red  granite 
and  was  originally  crowned  by  a  statue.  Aside  from  it  and 
the  catacombs,  there  is  little  to  suggest  the  venerable  age  of 
the  place.  The  catacombs  were  used  here,  as  in  Rome,  by 
early  Christians  for  interment. 

In  many  respects  Alexandria  is  like  certain  European 
cities.  Its  streets  are  well  paved,  it  has  broad  avenues  in  its 
newer  sections,  and  the  local  activities  center  around  a  great 
public  square,  named  after  Mohammet  Ali,  who  loved  the 
place  and  did  much  to  beautify  it.  Except  for  the  ruinous 
policy  of  Said  and  Ismail,  who  involved  their  country  in  heavy 
debt,  Alexandria  would  be  a  very  wealthy  metropolis,  for  its 
yearly  shipment  of  cotton  alone  is  nearly  one  million  bales. 
Nevertheless,  while  as  conspicuous  a  commercial  center  as 
Liverpool,  its  commerce  is  slight  compared  to  what  it  was 
before  shipping  interests  were  diverted  around  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope. 

In  no  other  locality  can  one  see  such  a  meeting  of  the 
nations.  All  languages  are  heard  in  a  general  babel  around 
the  harbor  and  in  the  streets.  Numbering  about  three  hundred 
and  forty  thousand  people,  its  population  includes  Asiatics  and 
Europeans  of  every  description,  who  offer  a  striking  contra- 
diction to  Kipling's  couplet: 

"For  East  is  East,  and  West  is  West, 
And  never  the  twain  shall  meet." 

Cairo. 

The  ride  from  Alexandria  to  Cairo  leads  across  the  level 
plains  of  the  delta.    Fields  of  grain,  occasional  palms,  scatter- 

*  The  shaft  is  erroneously  associated  with  Pompey. 


PRESENT-DAY  EGYPT.  I83 

ing  villages  of  mud  huts,  and  the  ever-evident  canals  make  up 
the  landscape.  As  one  draws  near  the  city  a  sight  of  the 
Pyramids  is  gained;  then  the  suburbs  of  Cairo  appear. 

Unlike  Alexandria,  Cairo  is  a  comparatively  modem  city. 
The  seaport  was  twelve  hundred  years  old  before  a  stone  of 
Cairo  had  been  set  in  place.  Now  having  a  population  of 
about  six  hundred  thousand,  it,  too,  shows  great  diversity  of 
people.  While  the  Arabs  make  up  the  bulk  of  the  inhabitants, 
representatives  of  all  countries  and  climes  are  seen.  The 
domed  mosques  stand  on  every  hand,  monuments  to  the 
teachings  of  Mohammed. 

Much  as  Venice  attracts  artists  by  its  lavish  display  of 
color,  Cairo  also  offers  visions  for  one  who  is  skillful  with 
the  brush.  Its  sapphire  skies,  gorgeous  sunsets  with  their 
marvellous  after-glow-,  the  gleaming  sands  of  the  desert  and 
Pyramids  turned  to  gold  in  the  setting  sun,  are  intoxicating. 
It  is  the  land  of  Arabian  Nights,  and  slight  imagination  is 
required  to  make  the  visitor  fancy  himself  back  in  story  land. 
Strange  and  unfamiliar  sights  greet  him  everywhere;  even 
the  odor  of  the  oriental  city,  incapable  of  description,  is 
present  when  darkness  has  eliminated  many  of  the  scenes, 
and  slumber  has  lessened  many  of  the  sounds. 

Although  few  spend  much  time  in  Alexandria,  all  visitors 
to  Egypt  devote  as  many  days  or  weeks  as  may  be  possible 
to  Cairo.  From  there  one  may  visit  the  great  Pyramids, 
going  by  train  if  limited  in  point  of  time;  going  by  donkey 
or  camel  if  fond  of  following  historic  customs.  Here,  too, 
one  starts  upon  the  trip  up  the  Nile,  without  which  any  visit 
to  Egypt  would  be  incomplete.  The  bazaars  afford  much 
entertainment  for  the  sojourner  in  Cairo.  Even  those  who 
for  some  reason  have  made  this  city  their  abode  for  a  pro- 
tracted time  never  tire  of  the  street  scenes  or  the  bazaars. 
Unlike  our  shops,  each  bazaar  displays  in  a  series  of  booths 
one  commodity;  rugs  and  carpets  have  a  bazaar  given  up  to 
them  alone;  jewels  and  ornaments  are  displayed  at  another, 
and  so  on.  It  would  seem  as  if  each  article  was  priced  accord- 
ing to  the  purse  of  the  customer.  It  is  impossible  in  oriental 
lands  to  shop  expeditiously,  as  in  western  countries.  The 
oriental  makes  bargains  with  his  customers;  he  names  a  price 
considerably  larger  than  he  expects  to  receive;  the  would-be 


i84  ths  world's  progress. 

customer  names  another  considerably  less  than  he  expects  to 
pay ;  and  sometimes  for  hours  the  bickering  is  continued,  each 
satisfied  in  the  end  and  probably  far  better  pleased  than  if  the 
matter  had  been  speedily  adjusted. 

Many  festivals  are  observed  in  Egypt.  The  year  is  lunar : 
if  New  Year's  Day  be  ascertained,  it  is  very  easy  to  account 
for  the  months,  each  being  twenty-eight  days  in  length. 
Within  a  period  of  thirty-three  years  a  complete  circuit  is 
made  and  another  begun.  The  fact  that  a  given  holiday  was 
celebrated  last  year  in  one  month  proves  immediately  that  this 
year  it  will  fall  at  another  time.  Mohammedan  feasts  and 
fasts  are  strictly  observed.  The  month  of  Ramadan  is  the 
holy  month,  corresponding  in  some  measure  to  our  Lent. 
None  of  the  faithful  will  allow  a  morsel  of  food  or  a  drop  of 
water  to  pass  their  hps  during  that  month  from  sunrise  to 
sunset.  But  the  moment  the  golden  orb  has  fallen  below  the 
horizon  the  feasting  begins,  often  to  last  throughout  the 
night.  When  this  month  of  daily  fasting  falls  in  the  hot 
summer-time,  the  mortality  is  very  great,  not  only  because 
of  immoderate  indulgence  through  the  night,  but  because  of 
the  suffering  for  lack  of  water  through  the  day. 

The  yearly  departure  of  the  caravan  for  Mecca  is  a 
remarkable  sight.  Every  true  Mohammedan  hopes  to  some 
day  make  a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  —  the  sacred  city  of  his 
prophet.  Each  year  those  who  are  able  set  out  upon  their 
journey.  A  carpet  which  has  been  woven  for  this  purpose  is 
sent  to  the  sacred  shrine,  to  take  the  place  of  the  one  placed 
there  the  previous  year.  The  procession  of  pilgrims  winds 
through  the  streets  of  Cairo,  witnessed  by  the  entire  popula- 
tion, who  throng  the  streets  to  catch  sight  of  the  carpet  and, 
if  possible,  to  touch  it.  Reaching  Mecca,  the  carpet  which  has 
absorbed  holiness  during  the  past  year  is  torn  up,  the  pieces 
being  distributed  among  the  pilgrims,  who  treasure  them  as 
their  dearest  possessions. 

Upon  his  return  home,  each  pilgrim  is  looked  upon  with 
envy  and  honor  by  his  Mohammedan  brethren.  He  and  all 
who  behold  him  know  that  his  entrance  into  Paradise  is  secure; 
henceforward  he  is  distinguished  for  his  piety,  and  those  less 
fortunate  can  but  dream  of  the  day  when  they,  too,  may  be 
able  to  follow  his  worthy  example. 


present-day  egypt.  185 

The  Egyptian  Museum. 

Only  in  comparatively  recent  years  have  antiquities  been 
adequately  prized  or  cared  for.  Early  in  the  nineteenth 
century  Lord  Elgin,  then  on  diplomatic  service  to  Turkey, 
was  so  dismayed  by  the  spectacle  of  Parthenon  fragments 
lying  about  unprotected  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens,  that  he 
succeeded  in  obtaining  permission  from  the  Sublime  Porte  to 
remove  them  to  England.  Subsequently  the  British  Museum 
purchased  them  from  him  for  much  less  than  had  been  the 
expense  incurred  in  removing  and  exporting  them  from 
Greece.  Similarly,  valuable  recoveries  in  Egypt  were  left 
for  private  individuals  to  take  away  as  they  saw  fit ;  sometimes 
they  were  finally  collected  by  national  museums,  but  quite  as 
often  they  became  the  possessions  of  the  favored  few,  or  in 
some  cases  were  even  wholly  lost. 

In  1863  Mariette  obtained  the  exclusive  right  to  excavate 
in  Egypt.  He  also  awakened  the  government  to  the  need  of 
placing  all  recoveries  under  its  exclusive  control.  Since  the 
time  of  Napoleon  scarcely  a  vessel  had  left  Alexandria  without 
carrying  some  priceless  treasure  to  be  added  to  the  collections 
of  the  Louvre  or  the  British  Museum.  In  1878  Mariette 
founded  the  Egyptian  Museum  at  Balak,  and  for  a  long  time 
it  was  known  as  the  Balak  Museum. 

Although  small  and  without  the  slightest  protection  against 
fire,  it  nevertheless  provided  a  place  for  antiques;  some  were 
merely  stored  in  sheds,  for  lack  of  room,  and  others  remained 
unclassified  because  there  was  no  opportunity  to  display  them. 
In  1889  the  need  for  another  building  was  keenly  felt.  Egypt 
could  not  build  at  this  time,  but  the  Palace  of  Gizeh  was 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  collection.  While  somewhat 
larger  than  Balak,  it  was  neither  commodious  nor  safe. 

On  the  first  day  of  April,  1897,  the  corner  stone  of  a 
national  museum  was  laid  in  Cairo  by  the  Khedive.  This 
substantial  and  fireproof  building,  constructed  at  a  cost  of 
almost  $900,000,  was  completed  November  15,  1902,  and  is 
now  the  repository  of  the  largest  and  most  valuable  collection 
of  Egyptian  antiquities  in  the  world.  ^ 

This  museum  has  been  fortunate  in  its  curators — all  men 
of  scholarly  attainments  and  well  versed  in  Egyptian  history. 


l86  THE  WORW)'S   PROGRESS. 

Marietta  was  succeeded  by  M.  Maspero,  whose  voluminous 
work  upon  Egyptian  history  is  well  known  to  many.  Later 
he  resigned  this  position  to  resume  his  literary  work  in  Europe, 
only  to  return  by  a  fortunate  circumstance  in  1899,  in  time  to 
supervise  the  transfer  of  the  many  priceless  treasures  to  their 
present  abode. 

Leaving-  the  busy  streets  of  Cairo,  one  turns  from  Moham- 
medan to  ancient  Egypt.  On  every  hand  the  past  looms  up; 
pharaohs  and  ^beings  of  a  period  far  remote  populate  this 
little  world,  and  so  far  as  life  can  express  itself  in  material 
things,  these  are  available  for  examination  and  study.  The 
plan  followed  in  the  arrangement  is  the  chronological  one 
used  also  in  the  earlier  buildings.  The  heavier  objects  have 
been  given  place  on  the  ground  floor;  the  lighter  and  smaller 
articles  on  the  floor  above.  The  first  six  rooms  on  the  ground 
floor  are  devoted  to  the  remains  of  the  Old  Empire — particu- 
larly of  the  fourth,  fifth  and  sixth  dynasties.  The  diorite 
statue  of  Khafra,  so  often  shown  in  prints,  is  here;  also  the 
squatting  statue  of  a  scribe,  second  only  in  beauty  to  the  one 
in  the  Louvre.  The  next  series  of  rooms  are  given  over  to  the 
remains  of  the  Middle  Empire.  The  statue  of  Amenemhet  III, 
of  the  twelfth  dynasty,  is  worthy  of  special  mention.  More- 
over, statues  and  sphinxes  of  the  Hyksos  period  are  also 
found  here. 

The  New  Empire  left  evidences  of  regal  splendor,  eclipsing 
all  earlier  periods;  gilded  chairs,  chariots,  dishes  of  gold  and 
silver,  as  well  as  statues  of  the  kings  themselves  attract 
attention.  Other  rooms  record  Egypt's  decay — when  Ethio- 
pians ruled  the  land;  the  period  of  Egyptian  Renaissance, 
productive  of  wonderful  sculpture;  the  coming  of  Alexander 
and  Greek  supremacy;  the  period  of  Roman  rule;  and  finally 
Byzantine  Egypt. 

The  second  floor  is  the  treasure  house  for  the  more  varied 
remains.  One  may  see  the  mummies  of  the  priests  of  Ammon, 
funerary  furniture,  dolls  and  other  toys,  alabaster  vases, 
domestic  furniture,  funerary  barks,  terra-cottas  of  the  Grseco- 
Roman  period,  statues  of  the  gods,  amulets  and  "answerers" 
and,  most  imposing  of  all  perhaps,  the  royal  mummies. 

In  one  of  the  rooms  is  an  example  of  the  finest  surviving 
Egyptian  painting:  a  picture  of  geese  feeding.     This,   like 


PRESENT-DAY  EGYPT.  ^87 

Other  paintings  of  ancient  Eg}'pt,  was  found  in  an  old  tomb. 

The  Galerie  dcs  Bijoux  is  also  on  this  upper  floor.  Some 
of  its  wonderful  treasures  rival  the  workmanship  of  Tiffany; 
others  are  even  more  perfect.  The  stones  most  frequently 
used  were  lapis  lazuli,  carnelian,  jasper  and  garnets.  The 
favorite  ornaments  were  rings,  collars,  chains,  amulets  and 
bracelets. 

One  might  spend  months  in  this  museum  and  fail  to 
exhaust  its  marvels.  Few  can  do  this,  and  for  those  whose 
visit  to  Cairo  must  be  brief,  it  is  better  to  see  only  a  little 
and  see  it  well  than  to  attempt  to  hurriedly  pass  through  all 
the  rooms.  The  British  Museum,  the  Louvre  and  the  Metro- 
politan Museum  in  New  York  all  have  departments  of 
Egy^ptian  antiquities. 

Since  the  work  of  excavation  and  discovery  still  goes  on, 
it  may  reasonably  be  expected  that  further  light  will  be  thrown 
upon  the  past  by  the  labor  of  the  next  few  years.  For  this 
reason  only  recent  publications  regarding  the  Nile  dwellers 
have  any  great  value. 

The  Suez  Canal. 

The  Suez  Canal  has  been  the  cause  of  Egypt's  late  inter- 
national importance.  It  exemplifies  several  striking  paradoxes. 
Opposed  bitterly  by  England  at  first,  it  is  now  largely  under 
her  control ;  made  possible  by  the  heavy  investments  of  the 
viceroy  of  Egypt,  this  country  has  no  shipping  today  to  profit 
Tjy  the  canal  nor  does  it  receive  any  benefit  whatever  because 
of  it.  On  the  contrary,  it  has  been  the  real  cause  of  Egypt's 
loss  of  independence.  Before  the  building  of  the  canal  began 
Egypt  had  no  debt;  while  the  viceroy  acknowledged  the 
suzerainty  of  the  Sultan  of  Turkey,  in  a  large  measure  he 
was  free  to  conduct  all  internal  affairs,  and  hoped  in  time  to 
gain  full  sovereignty.  The  enormous  amounts  supplied  by 
Viceroy  Said  for  the  canal  with  the  idle  hope  of  dazzling  the 
eyes  of  Europe  were  the  first  of  a  long  series  of  extravagances 
which  so  burdened  his  country  with  debt  that  progress  finally 
ceased  and  activities  became  paralyzed.  To  protect  their  sub- 
jects, who  had  loaned  money  at  a  rate  of  interest  prohibited 
in  their  own  lands,  European  countries  stepped  in  and  assumed 


1 88  THS  WORI^D'S  progress. 

control  of  Egyptian  finances.  Today  it  is  impossible  to  foresee 
how  Egypt  can  regain  the  independence  she  has  lost. 

In  ancient  times  canals  provided  Egyptians  access  to  the 
Red  Sea.  When  the  expedition  was  made  to  Punt  during-  the 
early  years  of  the  New  Empire,  it  is  probable  that  ships  built 
at  Thebes  were  dispatched  directly  to  the  sea  by  means  of  some 
constructed  water  way.  Again,  we  know  that  a  canal  was 
built  two  or  three  hundred  years  before  the  Christian  Era 
and  that  Cleopatra  tried  to  save  the  remnant  of  her  fleet  after 
the  battle  of  Actium  by  means  of  it;  but  owing  to  its  impaired 
condition  and  the  low  water  at  that  season,  her  attempt  failed. 

When  Egypt  became  a  Roman  province  a  water  way  con- 
necting the  Red  and  Mediterranean  seas  was  projected  but 
not  constructed.  Napoleon  was  quick  to  see  its  opportunities 
during  his  Egyptian  campaign  and  set  his  engineers  to  work 
upon  the  plan,  which  was  abandoned  upon  his  withdrawal 
from  Africa.  The  idea  prevailed  that  the  two  seas  were  of 
dififerent  levels.  In  1847  England,  France  and  Austria  sent 
out  a  commission  to  ascertain  the  facts,  and  their  surveys 
proved  that  the  levels  were  the  same.  However,  nothing  was 
done  and  the  matter  was  forgotten  save  by  a  French  engineer 
by  the  name  of  De  Lesseps,  who  continued  to  brood  over  the 
undertaking.  In  1856,  having  unusual  opportunities  to  culti- 
vate the  acquaintance  of  Viceroy  Said,  De  Lesseps  obtained 
from  him  a  concession  for  the  construction  of  a  canal  to  join 
the  Red  Sea  and  the  Mediterranean,  it  being  distinctly  stated 
that  this  should  cost  Egypt  nothing,  that  fifteen  per  cent  of 
the  profits  should  fall  to  her  share,  and  that  in  ninety-nine 
years,  upon  payment  of  the  actual  improvements  made  by  the 
canal  company  along  the  banks,  the  canal  should  revert  to 
Egypt.  To  prevent  the  importation  of  vast  hordes  of  laborers, 
Said  agreed  to  supply  peasant  labor  at  a  nominal  price, 
De  Lesseps  and  his  associates  to  provide  them  with  adequate 
food  and  care;  likewise  to  bring  fresh  water  to  the  scene  of 
action  for  their  use.  The  concession  was  made  conditional 
to  the  approval  of  the  Sultan  of  Turkey,  suzerain  of  Egypt, 
whose  consent  was  to  be  obtained  by  De  Lesseps  without 
mediation  of  the  viceroy. 

When  it  came  to  procuring  capital  sufficient  to  promote 
the  enterprise,  De  Lesseps  found  it  far  more  difficult  than  he 


PRESENT-DAY  EGYPT.  1 89 

had  imagined.  England  had  completed  a  railroad  from  Alex- 
andria to  Suez  in  1858  and  vigorously  opposed  the  canal 
project;  private  funds  might  have  been  forthcoming  from 
Englishmen  but  for  the  fact  that  the  government  disapproved 
so  heartily;  French  capital  was  needed  largely  at  home.  The 
canal  company  issued  400,000  shares,  which  for  some  tin^ 
went  begging.  De  Lesseps  finally  persuaded  Said  to  take 
177,662  shares,  which  marked  the  beginning  of  Egypt's 
enslavement  and  at  the  same  time  the  beginning  of  De  Lesseps' 
success.  Stock  was  readily  sold  now,  and  in  1859  the  digging 
began. 

In  1863  Said  died  and  Ismail  became  viceroy  of  Egypt. 
He  fell  into  the  mistake  of  his  predecessor  and  became  a  will- 
ing victim  for  the  canal  company.  The  work  upon  the  canal 
was  but  one-fourth  completed;  twenty-five  thousand  peasants 
had  been  impressed  every  three  months,  but  their  insufficient 
food  and  cruel  treatment  had  resulted  in  the  death  of  thou- 
sands. Protests  were  made  by  civilized  countries  everywhere — 
particularly  did  the  English  government  take  a  stand  for 
humane  conditions,  "her  philanthropy  and  political  interests 
being  roused  to  simultaneous  action." 

It  is  amusing  to  review  articles  written  during  the  years 
when  the  canal  was  first  discussed  as  a  possibility,  then  as  an 
actual  undertaking.  The  following  lines  have  been  taken 
from  a  magazine  published  in  i860: 

"We  have  once  more  to  advert  to  the  monster  folly  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  It  is  now  understood  that  our  government 
perceives  the  wisdom  of  leaving  a  project  so  insane  to  the 
fate  and  ridicule  which  inevitably  await  it.  It  was  their 
opposition  alone  that  gave  it  any  importance,  and  by  exciting 
the  national  prejudices  of  France,  enabled  the  projectors  to 
raise  funds  which  they  never  could  have  got  without  it.    .    .    . 

"The  project  is  to  cut  a  ship  canal  three  hundred  feet  wide 
and  thirty  feet  deep  over  ninety  miles  of  flat  sand.  As  the 
level  of  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Red  Sea  are  the  same,  the 
canal  will  be  near  thirty  feet  below  the  level  of  both,  and 
hence  it  will  be  a  stagnant  and  in  all  likelihood  a  pestilential 
ditch.     ... 

"The  Suez  Canal  will  be  begun  but  never  completed  nor 
half  completed.     Its  wreck,  as  useless  as  the  Pyramids,  but 

•1—14 


igO  THS  WORI^d'S  progress. 

far  less   interesting,   will   like  to   be   exhibited  to  posterity 
probably  under  the  name  of  the  'French  Folly.'  "♦ 

England's  appeal  to  the  Sublime  Porte  to  have  the  work 
upon  the  canal  stopped  brought  to  light  the  fact  that  the 
Sultan's  sanction  to  the  undertaking  had  never  been  procured. 
The  work  done  so  far  had  followed  very  primitive  methods, 
peasants  digging  the  sand  up  by  handsful,  putting  it  in  palm- 
leaf  baskets  and  carrying  these  up  the  steep  bank  to  empty, 
France  made  great  effort  to  obtain  the  Sultan's  approval,  for 
the  situation  was  critical.  His  reply  was  that  he  confirmed 
the  concession  granted  by  Viceroy  Said,  but  that  the  work 
henceforth  should  not  be  done  by  impressed  peasants.  The 
company's  treasury  was  again  empty;  it  chose  to  hold  the 
viceroy  responsible  for  the  predicament  caused  by  the  with- 
drawal of  the  peasants  and  brought  him  a  bill  for  damages. 
The  claims  made  could  not  have  been  substantiated  in  any 
court,  for  there  was  no  contract,  and  the  concession  distinctly 
stated  that  the  canal  was  to  cost  Egypt  nothing.  However, 
the  viceroy  was  peculiarly  situated ;  he  was  dreaming  of  a  day 
when  he  might  shake  off  the  suzerainty  of  Turkey  and  be 
recognized  by  the  powers  as  a  monarch  of  independent  might. 
Moreover,  he  valued  the  friendship  of  France — ^which  was 
to  cost  him  dear.  He  had  been  educated  in  Paris  and  hoped 
to  make  Cairo  the  Paris  of  Egypt.  Refusing  to  pay  the 
damages  asked,  De  Lesseps  prevailed  upon  him  to  submit  the 
matter  for  arbitration  and  —  strange  as  it  may  seem  —  the 
emperor  of  France  was  agreed  upon,  his  judgment  to  be  final. 
Napoleon  HI  ruled  that  the  clause  wherein  the  viceroy  had 
agreed  to  provide  peasant  labor  amounted  to  a  contract ;  that 
by  the  decree  of  the  Sultan  this  labor  was  now  unavailable; 
hence  the  company  had  suffered  severe  loss.  The  fact  that 
the  water  was  already  filtering  in  from  the  sea,  necessitating 
the  use  of  dredges,  was  not  brought  to  light.  Not  only 
sustaining  the  company's  claim,  he  added  other  injuries  which 
they  had  overlooked.  The  result  was  that  the  viceroy  paid  a 
large  amount,  which  added  to  Egypt's  rapidly  increasing  debt, 
and  at  the  same  time  enabled  the  canal  company  to  continue 
operations. 


*  Living  Age,  December,  1860. 


PRESENT-DAY  EGYPT.  I9I 

In  1869  the  canal  was  finished,  and  its  completion  was 
celebrated  by  sumptuous  festivities.  The  Empress  of  France, 
Emperor  of  Austria,  Crown  Prince  of  Prussia,  Prince  of 
Wales,  and  many  other  important  members  of  royalty  were 
present.  Forty-eight  ships  were  required  to  convey  the  guests 
thither;  the  celebration  lasted  one  month  —  the  entire  cost 
defrayed  by  the  viceroy,  or  the  Egyptian  government.  It 
amounted  to  about  $21,000,000.  It  was  for  this  occasion  that 
Verdi  wrote  his  opera  Aida,  the  great  Egyptologist  Mariette 
Bey  studying  ancient  costumes  and  settings  to  give  added 
interest  and  reality,  while  the  Egyptian  Museum  supplied 
jewels  for  the  gifted  musicians  brought  from  various  parts 
of  Europe  to  present  the  opera. 

A  few  years  later  it  was  found  that  the  debt  of  Egypt 
amounted  to  over  $450,000,000.  Securities  for  this  vast 
amount  were  held  by  English,  French  and  German  subjects. 
Even  the  stipulated  fifteen  per  cent  of  the  canal  profits  had 
been  used  as  security ;  the  Nile  valley  suffered  from  insufficient 
water  supply,  and  the  inflated  price  of  cotton,  obtaining  during 
the  Civil  War  in  the  United  States,  fell.  In  the  face  of 
impending  ruin,  something  had  to  be  done.  At  the  clamorous 
demands  of  Europe,  the  Sultan  deposed  Ismail,  whose  reckless 
policy,  together  with  that  of  Said,  had  brought  this  over- 
whelming trouble  upon  his  country.  The  British  government 
bought  the  stock  held  by  the  viceroy — 177,662  shares — for 
$20,000,000,  thus  obtaining  a  controlling  voice  in  the  company. 
France  and  England  established  what  was  known  as  the  "dual 
control"  in  Egypt,  which  continued  until  the  revolt  of  1882, 
at  which  time  France  refused  to  go  to  the  extreme  of  bom- 
barding Alexandria  and  withdrew — thus  ending  her  control 
in  Egyptian  affairs.  Since  1882  English  "occupation"  has 
continued  and  bids  fair  to  continue  for  an  indefinite  time. 
It  is  even  now  evident  that  if  the  canal  reverts  to  the  Egyptian 
government  upon  the  expiration  of  ninety-nine  years,  this 
may  be  a  very  different  government  from  that  which  gave  the 
original  concession. 

From  the  standpoint  of  commercial  history,  few  events 
have  been  more  signal  than  the  completion  of  the  Suez  Canal. 
Heretofore  vessels  have  saved  little  except  time  by  making 
use  of  it,  for  the  tolls  exacted  have  been  equal  to  the  expense 


19*  THE  world's  progress. 

of  about  three  thousand  miles  ocean  travel.  One  dollar  and 
ninety  cents  per  vessel  tonnage  and  two  dollars  per  passenger, 
crews  excepted,  have  been  required,  thus  making  the  cost  of 
large  vessels  passing  through  amount  sometimes  to  $id,ooo; 
$400  has  been  charged  for  a  small  yacht.  However,  it  is  now 
contemplated  to  make  the  tolls  for  both  Panama  and  Suez 
canals  uniformi — one  dollar  and  twenty  cents  per  vessel  ton- 
nage and  no  charge  for  passengers  being  the  proposed  change. 
The  distance  has  been  greatly  reduced  by  means  of  the  canal ; 
from  England  to  Bombay  lessened  from  10,860  to  4,620  miles; 
from  New  York  to  Bombay  from  11,520  to  7,920  miles. 

The  Suez  Canal  is  one  hundred  miles  in  length,  four 
hundred  twenty  feet  wide  surface  measure,  and  one  hundred 
eight  feet  on  the  bottom;  it  was  originally  twenty-seven  feet 
nine  inches  deep  but  has  been  since  dredged  to  a  depth  of 
thirty-one  feet,  lakes  making  it  deeper  in  some  places.  It 
takes  about  fifteen  hours  and  forty  minutes  to  pass  through, 
electricity  making  night  passage  possible. 

The  majority  of  ships  passing  through  fly  under  the 
English  flag;  next  in  number  are  those  sailing  under  the 
French  flag;  fewer  still  belonging  to  Germany.  Except  for 
passenger  vessels  and  men  of  war,  few  United  States  crafts 
have  been  seen  in  these  waters.  However,  in  view  of  the 
opening  of  Panama,  the  shipping  of  this  country  may  be 
expected  to  rapidly  increase. 


,3    iffi'Y': 


wm^m 


\T5\R'^ :' 


to  ano  aonia     .Ji  IIbo  ^3^1  as  ".lifi  aril  anil 
}/5rii  abubnoD  oj  aiBg  at  Ji  .liay  larf  bg-j 
vllBuau  91B  aabiia     .essb  laqqu  .95 
ariibbaw  ibrfj  noqn  glrij  8£  sDnirtsv 
bmsa  ariJ  io  agniqqfiij  nRt^f\>i\[^ 


t>r{r  <w  b!.j 


of  ah^      ♦'"  -  •  --an  travel.    One  dollar  and 

niner;  '  fwo  dollars  per  passenger, 

crew*  ts.  '?nis  making  the  cost  of 

l;i'">  sometimes  to  $10,000; 

$  ,  'ir.    However,  it  is  now 

contt  Panama  and  Suez 

caiul-  ..•  .•   ^ents  per  vessel  ton- 

nwt-T  o»wi  i!g  the  proposed  change. 

The-  Acd  by  means  of  the  canal; 

fron<  .,:,r. -...<.  .      ........  .>.   .va>.  J  from  10,860  to  4,620  miles ; 

fr-nr  r-Jcv/  York  to  Bomhay  from  11,520  to  7,920  miles. 

■^ot?  Canal   is  one   hundred  miles  in  length,   four 
fr.  ..     .vu  iwcnn   fret  wide  surface  measure,  and  one  hundred 

elgln  Uei  on  Ote  i)ott.>jit ;  it  was  originally  twenty-seven  feet 
n-r.c  ?n-he&  ''?f?p  hm  ha*^  '>t<'«vj«/9fe  (5i/5ec^g3^t0j5iS'^?|'ll?'of 
thirtv<-*ie  f«?<,  lak«s  makujg-  it  deeper  in  some  places.  It 
takts  atrout  nttcftJ  hours  and  forty  mmutes  to  pass  through, 
eleclit'-Itv'  tnp.i  irmttKE: -one-'' ^'^spftfifd^ebf  modern  Cairo  out  taking  t 
'1'Ik.    .  •  ■  lllll  aixW'srijelfeifjghetlw&'iigtfe  t^  qsHd^r  ^^^  o"^ 


K':rr»-h   (i«£--   if*v^-^^'^y'^9  '       '    '     ^^  to  tb€  uoper  clS^si.^   Bnaes^are  usua 


,    transporte  t  a  conveyance  as  uiis  upcm  ineir  weddi 

p.iSvnjTft   ^■'^'''•'^-i*'  dkyV  and  the  tinklittg  feW  J&Mr^tPngf^*%he  can 

have  ^H«::^  seen  JJ^dd  teethe -jafeaSore  oifituy^wei^iom  view  of  the 
'^'peauijt'f  of  P<n{»ma.  the  shipping  of  this  country  may  be 
oxTject'  i-  ■  '  rnpitily  incrtasc. 


BABYLONIA  AND  HER  NEIGHBORS 


PREFATORY  CHAPTER 


3[Tl  HE  interpretation  of  the  present  is  to  be  sought 
y  "%  i  in  the  light  of  the  past.  Ex  oriente  lux  (light 
|Jy.\|  out  of  the  east)  is  an  old  and  familiar  saying. 
i^j^  In  the  last  century  there  flashed  from  this 
quarter  a  light  that  astonished  the  world,  and 
like  the  wise  men  of  old,  it  came  from  the  valley  of  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates.  The  consequent  increase  in  our  knowl- 
edge has  revolutionized  much  of  the  thought  of  the  past,  and 
so  quietly  has  this  been  done  that  none  but  those  who  have 
been  more  particularly  interested  in  the  new  discoveries  are 
aware  of  the  importance  and  extent  of  the  changes  made. 
Our  views  of  ancient  history,  literature,  life,  religion  have 
been  greatly  altered  and  enlarged. 

Europe  and  America  have  been  for  almost  two  millennia 
under  the  potent  spell  and  inspiration  of  a  little  people  who 
lived  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  Mediterranean.  Prophets  and 
teachers  arose  among  them  who  lifted  the  world  ofif  its  hinges, 
set  Greece,  the  home  of  intellect,  to  thinking  anew,  and  uttered 
their  messages  through  the  successors  of  the  Caesars.  A 
wonderful  people,  indeed !  How  are  they  to  be  explained?  Most 
certainly  we  must  seek  for  their  explanation  in  the  light  of 
their  antecedents  and  racial  affinities.  It  was,  and  is,  no  more 
possible  to  understand  them  and  correctly  interpret  their  literary 
remains,  the  Bible,  apart  from  a  knowledge  of  the  great 
family  of  which  they  formed  numerically  only  an  insignificant 
part  than  it  would  be  to  understand  the  spirit  and  thought  of 
the  people  of  the  United  States  if  the  early  relations  to  Great 
Britain  were  unknown  or  ignored.  The  Old  Testament,  in 
the  book  of  Genesis,  records  that  the  ancestors  of  the  Hebrews 
emigrated  from  Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  an  ancient  city,  even  in  the 
days  of  Abraham,  of  southern  Babylonia  and  a  principal  seat 

193 


^94  THE  world's  progress. 

of  the  worship  of  the  moon-god,  Sin.  But  of  the  great  family 
of  the  Semites — the  Arabians,  Babylonians,  Assyrians,  Canaan- 
ites,  Aramaeans,  Syrians,  etc.,  little  was  known  a  century  ago. 
Practically  all  scholarly  interest  in  this  group  until  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century  was  confined  to  the  literature  and 
civilization  of  the  Arabs  since  the  Mohammedan  era. 

No  better  evidence  of  the  universal  ignorance  of  this  past, 
extending  down  to  modern  times,  can  be  found  than  in  Sir 
Isaac  Newton's  "Chronology  of  Ancient  Kingdoms  Amended," 
published  in  1728.  This  foremost  scholar  of  his  day  writes, 
page  268:  "However  we  must  allow  that  Nimrod  founded  a 
kingdom  at  Babylon,  and  perhaps  extended  it  into  Assyria; 
but  this  kingdom  was  but  of  small  extent,  if  compared  with 
the  empires  that  rose  up  afterwards;  being  only  within  the 
fertile  plains  of  Chaldea,  Chalonitis,  and  Assyria,  watered  by 
the  Tigris  and  Euphrates ;  and  if  it  had  been  greater,  yet  it  was 
but  of  short  continuance,  it  being  the  custom  in  those  early  ages 
for  every  father  to  divide  his  territories  amongst  his  sons.  So 
Noah  was  king  of  all  the  world,  and  Cham  was  king  of  all 
Afric,  and  Japhet  of  all  Europe  and  Asia  Minor."  Nimrod, 
Noah,  Ham  and  Japhet  were  all  as  truly  historical  persons  to 
the  great  scientist  Newton  and  his  age  as  were  David,  Isaiah 
and  the  apostle  Paul. 

More  than  a  century  and  a  half  have  passed  since  this 
famous  son  of  a  Lincolnshire  farmer  wrote  his  Chronology, 
but  the  limitations  under  which  he  wrote  were  destined  to 
remain  for  succeeding  historians  until  quite  recently.  Even 
trained  historians  have  found  it  difficult  within  the  last  two  or 
three  decades  to  adjust  themselves  to  the  new  discoveries.  Not 
long  ago  serious  writers  contended  that  the  world  was  created 
4004  B.C.,  in  six  days  of  twenty-four  hours  each,  and  anathemas 
were  in  store  for  those  that  questioned  it.  Writing  in  1855, 
Professor  Lewis  in  his  "Six  Days  of  Creation,"  declares  that 
the  Biblical  story  of  the  Creation  was  given  "by  inspiration  to 
the  earliest  times,  and  to  the  earliest  men,  and  in  the  earliest 
language  that  was  spoken  on  the  globe." — Hebrew !  Less  than 
twenty-five  years  ago  one  of  the  present  writers'  colleagues  in 
a  theological  seminary,  was  teaching  his  students  that  the  use 
of  the  plural  name  for  God  in  Hebrew,  and  the  thrice  repeated 
"Holy,  holy,  holy,"  furnished  collateral  evidence  in  support  of 


BABYLONIA    AND    HER    NEIGHBORS.  195 

the  doctrine  of  The  Trinity,  He  was  quite  unaware  that  the 
pol>i:heistic  Assyrians  used  the  same  thrice  repeated  ashru, 
ashru,  ashru,  in  praise  of  their  gods. 

This  however  is  only  another  proof  of  the  common  origin 
of  the  Semitic  peoples,  a  reminder  of  the  days  when  the  tribes 
were  not  dispersed,  and  Abraham  had  not  yet  gone  forth  from 
the  gates  of  Ur.  Scholars  of  today  have  found  that  the  sub- 
stance of  the  first  twelve  chapters  of  Genesis  is  also  recorded  in 
the  literature  of  other  Semitic  tribes,  the  Babylonian  narrative 
being  strikingly  similar  to  that  of  the  Hebrews.  The  other 
stories  lack  the  lofty  spiritual  quality  of  the  Old  Testament  nar- 
rative, as  the  Hebrew  writers  were  untouched  by  the  polytheism 
of  their  neighbors.  The  Semitic  race  has  always  been  preemi- 
nently religious,  and  though  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians  failed 
to  spiritualize  their  beliefs,  as  did  the  Hebrews,  their  cosmologies 
show  the  traces  of  their  common  origin.  There  we  find  Adam 
and  Eve,  under  the  names  of  Adapaor  Eabani  and  Ukhat,  created 
out  of  clay,  and  other  similarities,  too  numerous  to  mention 
here.  The  point  is  that  we  have  in  these  records  valuable  material 
on  the  period  before  the  Hebrews  were  called  to  be  a  separate 
nation,  and  we  can  better  estimate  their  remarkable  qualities. 

Owing  to  the  political  relations  into  which  the  people  of 
Israel  and  Judah  were  brought  to  the  empires  of  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates  valley,  the  compilers  of  the  historical  books  of  The 
O.  T.,  and  the  prophets  have  given  us  incidental,  valuable,  but 
not  always  unprejudiced  notices  of  their  kinsmen  to  the  East. 
The  n.  Book  of  Kings  touches  upon  some  noteworthy  events 
from  the  time  of  Tiglathpileser  H.  including  the  fall  of  Israel 
and  Judah.  Characteristic  of  these  notices  is  the  complete 
omission  of  Sargon's  name  except  in  Isaiah  20:1,  where  until 
the  discovery  of  the  inscriptions  it  was  thought  to  be  an  official 
title,  although  he  was  the  one  who  completed  the  conquest  of 
the  northern  kingdom,  the  "House  of  Omri,"  as  he  calls  it,  and 
deported  its  inhabitants.  It  is  difficult  indeed  for  an  Assyriol- 
ogist  to  imagine  an  Assyrian  rabshak  speaking  to  the  messengers 
of  Hezekiah  as  that  officer  is  reported  to  have  done  in  II. 
Kings  18:25f. :  "Am  I  now  come  up  without  the  Lord  against 
this  place  to  destroy  it  ?  The  Lord  said  unto  me,  Go  up  against 
this  land  and  destroy  it."  This  Yahwe  (Lord)  Isaiah  declares 
the  Assyrian  blasphemed,  an  act,  which,  to  say  the  least,  was 


19^  THE  world's  progress. 

more  in  accord  with  his  usual  temper.  Yahwe  was  no  more 
in  the  estimation  of  Sennacherib  than  the  gods  of  the  petty 
principaHties  of  Hamath  and  Arpad.  The  truth  seems  to  be 
that  the  writer  in  the  book  of  Kings  makes  the  rabshak  speak 
as  he  is  alleged  to  have  spoken  just  as  the  Babylonian  priests 
declared  that  Cyrus  had  been  called  to  the  conquest  of  Babylon 
by  the  Babylonian  god  Marduk. 

The  books,  especially  of  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Nahum  and 
Ezekiel,  contain  some  interesting  material  upon  the  cultus  of 
Babylonia.  It  is,  however,  the  darker  features  that  the  prophets 
delight  to  draw,  and  the  picture  they  present  to  us  does  not 
in  all  points  resemble  the  one  we  find  in  the  palaces  of  the  kings. 
The  animus  displayed  toward  the  enemy  is  far  removed  from 
the  precept  which  enjoins  that  he  shall  be  loved.  The  four- 
teenth chapter  of  Isaiah  is  a  standing  witness  to  the  correctness 
of  this  observation.  It  is  a  magnificent  paean  of  prophetic 
feeling,  but  it  is  necessary  to  observe  that  the  fate  of  Nabonidus, 
the  last  king  of  Babylon,  was  not  so  wretched  as  here  described. 
When  Cyrus  conquered  the  city  he  made  Nabonidus  governor. 
It  may,  however,  be  that  this  perfervid  and  vengeful  utterance 
of  irrepressible  joy  related  originally  to  Sargon  II.,  king  of 
Assyria,  conqueror  of  Samaria,  who,  as  his  successor  Sen- 
nacherib tells  us  "was  not  buried  in  his  house,"  and  that  after 
the  fall  of  Babylon  the  latter  name  was  interpolated.  At  all 
events  this  king,  unlike  "the  kings  of  the  nations,"  did  not  "sleep 
in  his  own  house"  (vss.  18-19),  and  the  introductory  verses  are 
obviously  late.  Optimistic  and  pessimistic  patriots  who  writhed 
under  the  domination  of  a  foreign  power,  religious  zealots 
conscious  of  their  possession  of  a  purer  and  practically  re- 
ligious faith,  it  is  little  wonder  they  portrayed  only  the  harsher 
features  of  their  spoilers  and  conquerors. 

The  apocalyptic  book  of  Daniel,  so  long  interpreted  as  a 
sober  recital  of  historic  events,  is  distinctly  and  admittedly  at 
variance  on  some  points  with  the  monumental  records  of  Neb- 
uchadnezzar, Nabonidus,  and  Cyrus.  It  would,  however,  be  an 
unjustifiable  inference  were  any  one  to  conclude  from  the  fore- 
going that  the  records  of  the  Old  Testament  had  all,  or  in  great 
measure,  been  relegated  to  the  hazy  region  of  myth  and  fiction 
by  the  revelations  of  the  contemporary  records  of  the  monu- 
ments.    The  historical  presentation  of  events  from  the  age  of 


BABYI^ONIA    AND    HER    NEIGHBORS.  197 

Saul  onwards  has  on  the  whole  received  welcome  corrobora- 
tion. The  inscriptions  on  stone  and  clay  have  confirmed  the 
story  of  the  parchment  rolls,  completing,  amending,  elucidating 
it  and  always  enabling  us  to  interpret  it  more  accurately. 

Sufficient  has  been  said  in  the  foregoing  to  suggest  the  far- 
reaching  importance  of  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  archaeology 
and  literature  for  the  understanding  of  the  Old  Testament.  We 
are  able  now  not  only  to  bring  new  material  in  contemporary 
documents  to  aid  us  in  its  study,  we  are  able  also  to  interpret 
the  life  and  thought  of  its  people  in  the  light  of  the  larger 
history,  political,  institutional,  social,  moral,  legal  and  religious, 
of  the  great  family  to  which  Israel  belonged.  The  life  of  the 
various  members  of  the  ancient  Semitic  stock  has  been  illum- 
inated by  the  discoveries  which  began  with  Botta  and  Layard. 
The  conditions  existing  in  Canaan  prior  to  the  conquest,  for 
example,  became  clear  only  with  the  discovery  of  the  Tell- 
Amarna  tablets  in  1887.  They  were  found  in  the  palace  of 
Amenophis  on  the  bank  of  the  Nile  about  180  miles  south  of 
Cairo  and  they  cast  an  unexpected  light  upon  the  period  of  the 
Exodus.  Israel,  her  history,  her  conquests,  her  captivities  and 
her  religion  no  longer  stand  as  things  apart  in  which  the  super- 
natural has  been  imminent  and  active  in  a  manner  nowhere 
else  discoverable  in  the  history  of  the  race.  A  "Thus  saith 
Jehovah  "  differs  from  a  similar  utterance  from  the  gods  of 
Israel's  neighbors,  but  it  is  rather  in  the  character  of  the 
prophet  than  in  the  understanding  of  the  people. 

While  the  Old  Testament  gave  us  some  information  about 
Babylonia  and  Assyria  prior  to  the  discoveries  of  their  own 
monuments,  a  brief  account  of  which  is  given  in  the  follovv^ing 
pages,  it  must  be  admitted  that  it  has  gained  by  these  dis- 
coveries incomparably  more  than  it  gave.  But  we  have  learned 
not  only  about  Israel  and  the  Bible,  we  have  learned  also  much 
about  the  earlier  Amoritic  inhabitants  of  Palestine  who  had 
entered  there  and  spread  into  Egypt  and  Babylonia  as  early  as 
the  second  half  of  the  third  millennium  B.C.  Much  has  been 
won  from  these  records  about  Egypt  and  Ethiopia,  about  the 
peoples  of  Arabia,  the  Hittites,  the  Aramaeans,  Armenians, 
Elamites,  Medes  and  Persians  as  well  as  the  early  inhabitants 
of  Babylonia,  the  Sumerians,  the  original  inventors  of  the 
cuneiform  writing,  which  was  a  later  development  of  pict- 


198  THE   WORU>'S   PROGRESS. 

©graphic  symbols.  We  have  learned  with  astonishment  of  the 
advances  made  in  Babylonia  in  early  times  in  the  arts  and  archi- 
tecture. Deprived  by  the  nature  of  his  country,  in  which 
wood  and  stone  were  not  to  be  found,  we  read  of  Gudea  (Circa 
3000  B.C.)  bringing  diorite  from  Magan,  West  Arabia,  for  his 
sculptures,  some  of  which  are  now  to  be  seen  in  the  Louvre 
collection.  The  skill  of  the  lapidarist  in  connection  with  the 
cunningly  engraved  cylinder  seals  is  today  the  admiration  of 
the  best  workers  in  the  art  of  engraving,  and  the  wounded  lioness 
from  the  palace  of  Ashurbanipal  in  the  seventh  century  B.C. 
is  the  best  portrayal  of  animal  life  that  has  come  to  us  from 
ancient  times.  As  Professor  Sayce  has  recently  shown,  the  lamp 
in  use  in  Greece  in  the  historical  age,  and  not  before,  and  later 
borrowed  by  the  Romans,  and  after  the  Greek  conquest,  by  the 
Egyptians,  was  Babylonian  in  origin  and  a  common  utensil  in 
Mesopotamia  prior  to  the  fourteenth  century  B.C.  The  com- 
posite symbols  of  Babylonia  were  adopted  by  the  people  of 
Western  Asia.  The  eagle  of  the  southern  city-kingdom  of 
Lagash  (Telloh)  was  transported  to  the  Hittites.  The  eagle 
symbol,  wherever  found,  double-headed  or  single,  is  a  bird  from 
the  land  of  Paradise.  The  winged  horse  is  found  upon  Hittite 
seals,  and  from  Asia  passed  over  the  Hellespont  and  became  the 
Greek  Pegasos.  The  native  fetish  deities  of  Asia  Minor  were 
replaced  by  gods  in  human  form,  and  the  idea  of  a  trinity,  or 
triad  of  deities,  followed  in  the  wake  of  Babylonian  culture. 
In  architecture  the  Babylonians  invented  the  arch.  This 
achievement  had  always  been  attributed  to  the  Etruscans  on  the 
basis  of  the  statements  of  the  classical  writers.  But  it  was 
used  by  the  Babylonians,  as  we  now  know,  three  thousand  years 
before  there  is  any  evidence  of  its  use  on  classical  soil.  Col- 
umnar construction  dates  back  to  the  same  period.  Both  the 
arch  and  the  column  were  found  in  the  buildings  unearthed  a 
few  years  ago  at  Nippur  by  the  expeditions  from  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania.  Owing  to  the  dearth  of  wood  and  stone 
these  pioneers  in  the  arts  of  civilization  were  forced  to  have 
recourse  to  clay,  the  only  material  available.  They  therefore 
invented  the  pillar  made  of  brick.  Babylonia  was  the  land  par 
excellence  of  brick  buildings.  Their  land  abounded  in  asphaltum 
and  this  they  used  instead  of  mortar,  as  the  Hebrew  writer 
tells  us  they  did  when  they  built  the  tower  of  Babel,  "the  temple 


BABYLONIA    AND    HER    NEIGHBORS.  199 

with  the  lofty  tower,"  in  Babylon.  "Their  technical  skill  rested 
on  scientific  principles  no  less  unattainable  in  modern  archi- 
tecture than  the  Grecian  idea  of  beauty  in  the  plastic  art.  The 
buildings  which  they  constructed  with  brick  must  have  been 
built  according  to  rules  and  laws  unknown  to  modern  archi- 
tecture, which  views  many  of  these  ancient  works  with  the 
same  astonishment  as  is  evoked  by  the  pyramids  of  Egypt." 
Babylonia  can  at  least  claim  to  have  made  early  advances  in 
astronomical  observations.  The  movements  of  the  heavenly 
bodies  were  carefully  watched  from  the  earliest  times  and 
records  made  of  them.  Even  in  the  late  Roman  period  the 
Chaldeans  were  still  looked  upon  as  the  founders  of  astronomy. 
It  is  true  that  Egypt  had  also  at  a  very  early  age  successfully 
cultivated  this  science  and  had  introduced  a  practical  calendar 
which  began  the  year  on  the  day  when  Sirius  was  first  observed 
on  the  eastern  horizon  at  sunrise  4200  years  before  the  Christian 
era.  Some  Egyptologists  hold  that  this  calendar  was  the  pre- 
cursor of  the  Julian,  which  in  turn  was  modified  by  Pope  Greg- 
ory in  1582,  thus  giving  us  the  Gregorian  calendar  which  was 
adopted  in  England  by  the  Calendar  Amendment  Act  of  1751. 
But  it  is  more  probable  that  we  are  indebted  to  the  Babylonians 
for  our  calendrical  system,  Greece  and  Rome  borrowing  from 
them.  The  naming  of  the  days  of  the  week  after  the  sun  and 
moon  gods  and  the  five  planets  known  to  them  seems  beyond 
dispute.  It  was  they  who  divided  the  circle  into  360  degrees 
in  connection  with  their  sexagesimal  system  of  numerals,  the 
day  into  24  hours,  and  the  hour  into  60  minutes.  The  faces  of 
our  watches  bear  daily  and  hourly  witness  to  our  obligations  to 
this  old  people  of  the  land  of  Shinar.  There  are  24  hours  in 
the  day,  but  our  time-pieces  divide  them  into  two  periods  of 
12  hours  each,  just  as  the  Babylonian  day  was  reckoned  as  12 
double  hours.  By  what  routes  and  means  these  transfers  of 
scientific  achievements  were  made  from  the  mother-land  of 
science  to  the  peoples  of  Europe  we  are  not  yet  able  to  decide. 
Further  discoveries,  however,  will  doubtless  reveal  still  more 
clearly  the  historic  connections  of  modern  culture  with  the  people 
of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  valley  who  themselves  speak  of 
their  cities  as  "ancient"  before  the  deluge. 

All  of  this  increase  of  knowledge  hinted  at  in  the  preceding 
paragraphs,  and  all  too  briefly  sketched  in  this  work,  is  the 


200  THE  WORIvD'S   progress. 

acquisition  of  our  own  times.  The  Greeks,  who  in  haughty 
disdain  regarded  all  others  as  "barbarians,"  knew  little  of  this 
ancient  of  days — nothing  whatever  of  the  great  ruler  Sargon  I. 
or  Hammurabi,  imperialist  and  great  law-giver  fifteen  hundred 
years  before  the  enactment  of  the  laws  of  Draco  and  Solon  at 
Athens. 

Among  the  Greek  writers  Herodotus  is  the  only  one  that  can 
be  considered  as  a  direct  source.  He  may  have  visited  Babylon 
about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  B.C.  Much  of  what  he  has 
written,  however,  is  clearly  a  matter  of  hearsay  or  romancing. 
The  judgment  passed  on  him  by  his  contemporaries  and  suc- 
cessors was  certainly  not  without  foundation.  His  critics  ac- 
cused him,  as  the  Arabian  historians  did  Ibn  Ishaq,  the  biog- 
rapher of  Mohammed,  of  direct  falsification,  and  even  a  super- 
ficial study  of  his  writings  is  sufficient  to  prove  that  the  accusa- 
tion was  not  without  apparent  warrant.  One  seeks  in  vain,  for 
example,  in  the  Babylonian  literature  for  evidence  of  the  cus- 
tom, which  he  describes  as  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  wisest 
of  the  Babylonians,  of  putting  the  marriageable  girls  once  a 
year  upon  the  market  to  be  sold  to  the  highest  bidders !  Naively 
he  adds  that  this  was  ^n  earlier  custom  that  was  no  longer 
practised  in  his  time.  Of  the  history  of  Babylon  he  knew  little — 
of  its  latest  rulers  and  even  of  the  great  Nebuchadnezzar  he  had 
not  an  inkling  as  Tiele,  the  Dutch  historian,  has  said.  Ctesias, 
the  Carian  physician  who  lived  for  seventeen  years  at  the  Persian 
court  of  Artaxerxes  Mnemon  in  the  fourth  century,  did  not 
know  that  Babylon  had  an  independent  existence.  Those  who 
followed  were  for  the  most  part  merely  excerptors  from  those 
who  preceded  them.  In  view  of  the  paucity  and  unreliability  of 
the  sources  an  impenetrable  veil  was  drawn  between  us  and  the 
ancient  orient.  At  last  it  has  been  lifted,  and  in  the  language  of 
the  old  poets  of  Babylon,  "brother  again  sees  brother." 


CLAY   JARS    OF  CHALDEA. 

BABYLONIA  AND  ASSYRIA 


CHAPTER  I. 
Early  Civilization  of  Asia. 

N  STUDYING  the  history  of  Babylonia  and  As- 
syria, our  attention  is  drawn  to  one  of  the  earhest 
inhabited  portions  of  the  globe — so  far  as  is  now 
known:  to  the  valley  of  the  Euphrates.  Biblical 
tradition  favored  the  view  that  this  was  the  Cradle 
)f  the  Human  Race.  Here  the  Yahvistic  writer  placed 
the  fabled  Garden  of  Eden,  the  best  explanation  he  could 
devise  for  the  origin  of  mankind.  The  valley  was  a  regular 
thoroughfare  for  early  tribes  journeying  to  and  from  Arabia, 
and  reaching  out  to  the  east,  west,  or  north  for  new  homes, 
often  remaining  for  long  succeeding  generations  in  the  fertile 
region  itself.  It  was  a  land  where  men  of  various  tongues  and 
dialects  met,  only  to  again  diverge.  The  effort  of  the  Hebrew 
to  explain  how  so  many  languages  had  come  into  being  resulted 
in  the  story  of  the  Tower  of  Babel.  Before  the  beginnings  of 
the  Hebrew  race  as  distinct  from  the  general  Semitic  family, 
an  old  civilization  had  developed  here  in  Chaldea.  In  con- 
nection with  his  worship,  the  Chaldean  built  high  ziqqurats — 
temple-towers  of  from  three  to  seven  platforms,  rising  one 
above  the  other,  each  platform  smaller  than  the  one  below. 
The  story  handed  down  from  one  generation  of  the  Hebrews 
to  another  was  that  the  Chaldeans  had  once  tried  to  build  a 
tower  to  Teach  the  very  heavens.  Alarmed  at  their  presumo- 
tion,  God  confounded    their  speech  so  they  could    no  I'oogv* 

201 


202  THE  WORIvD'S  PROGRESS. 

understand  one  another.     Thus  was  man  punished  and  thus 
the  various  speeches  originated. 

In  following  the  history  of  the  mixed  race  known  as  the 
Babylonians,  and  of  those  who  pressed  north  of  the  home- 
country  to  found  the  state  of  Assyria,  we  shall  become  ac- 
quainted with  the  only  great  nation  of  antiquity  whose  civil- 
ization may  have  been  older  than  that  of  the  Egyptians.  We 
have  no  reliable  record  of  the  Chinese  until  late  in  the  third 
millennium,  and  their  civilization,  if  more  ancient  still,  was 
isolated  at  least,  and  affected  no  other  people.  When 
Thutmose  I.  penetrated  to  the  valley  of  the  Euphrates,  some 
years  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Hyksos,  he  came  upon  a  nation, 
of  whose  culture,  script,  and  language,  as  the  recently  discovered 
Tell-el-Amarna  tablets  indicate,  were  already  familiar  to  his 
own  people. 

The  recorded  life  of  Egypt  reaches  back  more  than  6,000 
years ;  civilization  in  Mesopotamia  may  have  been  more  ancient. 
Many  monuments  have  been  unearthed  in  the  sites  of  ancient 
cities  which  throw  light  upon  great  antiquity.  In  Egypt  visible 
monuments  have  borne  witness  through  long  succeeding  cen- 
turies of  early  strength ;  in  Babylonia  and  Assyria  the  very  site 
of  cities  was  forgotten,  and  men  no  longer  remembered  where 
these  two  influential  powers  of  antiquity  had  developed. 
Though  in  the  last  century  only  anything  like  a  complete  history 
of  Egypt  has  been  possible,  yet  evidences  of  a  nation  long  since 
extinct,  were  preserved  in  temples  and  tombs,  and  hieroglyphics 
covering  walls  and  columns  indicated  that  whoever  should  dis- 
cover their  meaning  would  learn  of  their  mighty  builders.  Far 
different  was  the  case  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria.  They  too 
had  once  been  proud  and  wealthy  nations,  taking  foremost 
rank ;  their  cities  filled  the  valleys  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris, 
and  their  fertile  fields  yielded  even  more  abundantly  than  the 
rich  Nile  valley.  Their  palaces  rose  to  the  glory  of  their  kings, 
and  their  commerce  penetrated  to  every  corner  of  the  ancient 
world.  Then  changes  came  upon  the  life  of  antiquity.  New 
peoples  pushed  to  the  front;  the  tide  of  commerce  shifted  into 
other  channels.  These  nations  were  conquered  by  their  yet 
stronger  neighbors,  and  their  temples  and  palaces,  built  not 
of  enduring  stone  but  of  perishable  brick,  fell  into  heaps  of 
nameless  mounds.  When  the  waters  of  the  mighty  rivers 
were  no  longer  guided  through  canals  to  irrigate  the  land. 


STORY  OF  BABYLONIA  AND  ASSYRIA.  20$ 

the  soil  ceased  to  be  productive.  Desert  sands  spread  over  the 
desolate  region  and  reclaimed  wide  areas  which  became  the 
tenting  ground  for  nomadic  tribes.  The  very  words  of  the 
late  writer  in  the  Book  of  Isaiah  concerning  these  nations  rang 
true  through  the  ages : 

"And  Babylon,  the  glory  of  kingdoms,  the  beauty  of  the  Chaldees' 
excellency,  shall  be  as  when  God  overthrew  Sodom  and 
Gomorrah.  It  shall  never  be  inhabited,  neither  shall  it  be 
dwelt  in  from  generation  to  generation:  neither  shall  the 
Arabian  pitch  tent  there ;  neither  shall  the  shepherds  make 
their  fold  there.  But  wild  beasts  of  the  desert  shall  lie 
there;  and  their  houses  shall  be  full  of  doleful  creatures; 
and  owls  shall  dwell  there,  and  satyrs  shall  dance  there. 
And  the  wild  beasts  of  the  islands  shall  cry  in  their  deso- 
late houses,  and  dragons  in  their  pleasant  palaces ;  and 
her  time  is  near  to  come,  and  her  days  shall  not  be  pro- 
longed. 

"Then  shall  the  Assyrian  fall  with  the  sword,  not  of  a  mighty 
man ;  and  the  sword,  not  of  a  mean  man,  shall  devour 
him ;  but  he  shall  flee  from  the  sword,  and  his  young  men 
shall  be  discomfited.  And  he  shall  pass  over  to  his  strong- 
hold for  fear,  and  his  princes  shall  be  afraid  of  the  en- 
sign."^ 

Nineveh,  the  capital  of  Assyria,  disappeared  suddenly.  In 
Alexander's  day  its  site  was  unknown.  Babylon,  however,  was 
not  destroyed  by  Cyrus,  but  continued  its  importance  until  the 
rise  of  its  rival  Seleucia,  and  was  still  inhabited  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  But  the  two  nations  were  forgotten  in  the  west  for  hun- 
dreds of  years.  Then  with  the  dawn  of  peace  and  order  in 
Europe  during  the  later  Middle  Ages,  came  the  desire  to  know 
about  the  past.  Monks  who  made  pilgrimages  to  the  Holy  Land, 
during  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  sometimes  pressed 
farther  east,  and  made  mention  of  strange  mounds  seen  in  the 
valleys  of  these  ancient  rivers.  Travelers  told  of  curious  in- 
scriptions found  among  the  ruins  there.  In  rare  cases,  they 
even  went  to  the  length  of  copying  one  or  two,  with  greater 

1  Isaiah   13,   19-22;  31,  8-9.     Note.— This  is  the  A.  V.  version.     It 

should   read:       The  Assyrian  shall  fall  by  a  sword,  not  a  man's, 
And  a  sword,  not  a  human  one,  shall  devour  him. 
[And  he  shall  flee  from  the  face  of  the  sword. 
And  his  brave  ones  shall  become  tributary. 
And  his  rock  be  will  run  by  in  terror. 
And  his  princes  in  fright  shall  abandon  their  flaff.] 

The  destruction  is  to  be  supernatural,  according  to  Isaiah.  The 
liaes  in  brackets  are  probably  a  later  addition. — (Craig.) 


204  THE  WORU)'S  PROGRESS. 

or  less  accuracy.  It  was  left  finally  for  the  eighteenth  century 
to  locate  the  old  sites  of  Babylonian  cities,  and  for  the  nine- 
teenth century  to  discover  the  hidden  meaning  of  the  wedge- 
shaped  letters  inscribed  upon  their  ruins. 

To  the  patient  efforts  of  the  men  who  persisted  in  their 
difficult  and  often  disheartening  task  of  unearthing  ruins,  and 
to  the  scholars  who  toiled  year  after  year  to  read  the  for- 
gotten language  these  ruins  brought  to  light,  we  owe  most 
that  is  now  known  regarding  the  early  inhabitants  of  the 
Euphrates  valley.  These  nations,  so  long  destroyed,  their 
cities,  so  long  abandoned,  we  shall  try  to  bring  before  us  as 
they  have  been  reconstructed  by  historians  in  more  preten- 
tious volumes.  Naturally,  any  account  of  the  Babylonians  and 
Assyrians  will  involve  some  consideration  of  their  neighbors, 
whose  civilizations  developed  by  their  side,  and  whose  fortunes 
frequently  mingled  with  theirs. 

The  Recovery  of  Forgotten  Cities. 

Were  we  to  proceed  at  once  to  the  development  of  the 
Babylonian  and  Assyrian  states  without  first  pausing  to  note 
what  far-reaching  efforts  have  been  made  to  read  their  early 
civilization  from  their  remains,  entombed  within  the  earth,  we 
would  deprive  ourselves  of  one  of  the  most  interesting  pages  in 
modem  historical  research. 

Since  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  we  find  references 
made  to  the  ruins  of  Babylon  and  Nineveh,  by  monks  and 
travellers  who  greatly  confused  the  ancient  cities,  repeatedly 
mistaking  Baghdad  for  Babylon.  In  1613  there  was  published 
by  an  English  nobleman  an  account  of  his  distant  travels.  "Sir 
Anthony  Sherley;  His  Relation  of  His  Travels  into  Persia." 
This  is  what  he  wrote  of  these  ancient  capitals:  "I  will 
speak  ...  of  Babylon;  not  to  the  intent  to  tell  stories, 
either  of  the  huge  ruins  of  the  first  Towne  or  the  splendour  of 
the  second,  but  because  nothing  doth  impose  anything  in  man's 
nature  more  than  example — ^to  shew  the  truth  of  God's  word, 
whose  vengeances,  threatened  by  His  Prophets,  are  truely  suc- 
ceeded in  all  those  parts.    .    .    . 

"All  the  ground  on  which  Babylon  was  spred  is  left  now 
desolate;  nothing  standing  in  that  Peninsula  between  the 
Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  but  only  part,  and  that  a  small  part 


STORY  OP  BABYLONIA  AND  ASSYRIA.  20$ 

of  the  greate  Tower,  which  God  hath  sufifered  to  stand  (if  man 
may  speake  so  confidently  of  His  greate  impenetrable  counsels) 
for  an  eternal  testimony  of  His  work  in  the  confusion  of  Man's 
pride,  and  that  Arke  of  Nebuchadnezzar  for  as  perpetual  a 
memory  of  his  greate  idolatry  and  condigne  punishment.    .    .    . 

"Nineve,  that  which  God  himself  called  That  greate  Citie, 
hath  not  one  stone  standing  which  may  give  memory  of  the 
being  of  a  towne.  One  English  mile  from  it  is  a  place  called 
Mosul,  a  small  thing,  rather  to  be  a  witness  of  the  other's 
mightinesse  and  God's  judgment  than  of  any  fashion  of  mag- 
nificence in  it  selfe."  ^ 

These  words  struck  the  note  which  was  to  lead  to  exten- 
sive labors  for  discovery.  Europe  was  at  the  time  passing 
through  a  period  of  deep  religious  fervor,  which  was  felt  in 
many  classes  of  society  and  walks  of  life,  and  people  who  cared 
not  at  all  for  the  history  of  ancient  nations  were  roused  by  the 
possibility  offered  to  verify  statements  found  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment and  prove  its  inspiration  by  showing  the  fulfillment  of  its 
prophecies.  Although  nothing  of  importance  was  accomplished 
at  this  time,  the  religious  motive  survived. 

The  first  systematic  investigation  was  made  by  Claudius 
James  Rich,  appointed  in  1811  as  resident  of  the  East  India 
Company  at  Baghdad.  He  made  a  thorough  examination 
of  all  the  large  mounds  in  that  particular  locality  and  pre- 
pared a  survey  of  the  most  important  ones.  This  proved  very 
useful  to  those  who  came  later  to  the  field.  He  had  besides 
made  a  small  collection  of  finds  at  Hillah  and  Mosul — a  box 
only  three  feet  square — which  were  sent  with  his  charts  to  the 
British  Museum.  These  later  furnished  the  inspiration  to 
further  exploration. 

In  1842  the  French  government  sent  Paul  Emil  Botta 
to  Mosul  as  consular  agent,  and  his  name  was  destined  to  be 
connected  with  all  discoveries  made  in  Assyria  during  the  early 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Stimulated  by  Julius  Mohl, 
who  had  examined  Rich's  meagre  but  suggestive  finds,  he  was 
the  first  to  actually  dig  into  the  mounds  of  ruins.  After  com- 
ing upon  nothing  noteworthy  during  three  months'  excavation 
in  Kujundjik,  a  peasant  told  him  that  strange  objects  had  been 

"Sherley :  His  Relation  of  His  Travels  Into  Persia. 
1—15 


206  THE   WORUJ'S   PROGRESS. 

found  at  Khorsabad,  about  four  hours  to  the  northeast,  and 
thither  Botta  sent  his  workmen. 

The  poor  Arabian  laborers  of  this  region  are  ignorant 
Mohammedans,  and  they  suspected  that  Botta  was  digging 
for  gold,  while  they  conceived  the  unique  idea  that  the  frag- 
ments bearing  inscriptions,  now  and  then  brought  to  light, 
were  charms  which  in  some  way  guided  him  on  to  hidden 
treasure.  The  Turkish  Pasha  put  all  possible  obstacles  in  his 
way,  but  the  very  first  shaft  Botta  sank  came  upon  the  walls 
of  an  old  palace — a  find  especially  valuable  at  a  time  when  only 
the  most  enthusiastic  scholars  had  faith  in  the  undertaking, 
and  people  generally  regarded  the  project  as  misguided.  No 
less  than  209  rooms  were  laid  bare  by  Botta  and  his  successor, 
Victor  Place. 

Austen  Henry  Layard,  an  English  boy  of  Huguenot 
descent,  had  devoured  all  available  books  of  travel  and  adven- 
ture. He  came  to  the  work  of  Assyrian  exploration  as  an 
enthusiastic  young  man  about  the  time  of  Botta's  widely  noised 
discovery.  On  November  9,  1845,  Mr.  Layard  began  to 
excavate  at  Nimrud,  some  distance  south  of  Nineveh,  and 
before  the  first  day's  work  was  done  he  had  the  promise,  and, 
in  part,  the  satisfaction  of  realizing  his  "visions  of  palaces  under 
ground."  He  had  discovered  the  North- West  palace  of  Nimrud, 
built  by  Ashurnatsirpal,  884-861  B.C.,  upon  the  foundations  of 
one  laid  by  Shalmeneser,  1300  B.C.  After  a  little  more  than  a 
year  and  a  half  he  returned  to  England  having  discovered  no 
less  than  three  palaces.  The  funds  necessary  for  his  work  were 
obtained  from  Sir  Stratford  Canning,  the  English  ambassador 
at  Constantinople. 

In  1849  excavations  were  begun  again  with  the  assistance 
of  Hormuzd  Rassam  at  the  expense  of  the  British  Museum. 
"The  excavations  carried  on  under  these  auspices,  and  with  the 
powers  Layard  then  possessed,  were  successful  beyond  his 
wildest  dream.  As  the  trenches  followed  round  the  walls  of 
room  after  room  they  uncovered  great  slabs  of  alabaster,  with 
which  the  chamber  walls  were  wainscoted,  and  these  were  found 
to  be  richly  carved  in  relief  with  scenes  of  hunting,  of  war, 
^ind  of  solemn  ceremony.  The  very  life  of  palace,  camp  and 
fteld  in  Assyrian  days  came  back  again  before  the  astonished 
tyes  of  the  explorer,  while  these  received  an  addition  to  their 


STORY  O^  BABYU)NIA  AND  ASSYRIA.  20/ 

verisimilitude  by  the  discovery  in  some  of  the  ruins  of  pieces 
of  iron  which  had  once  formed  parts  of  the  same  kind  of  armor 
as  that  portrayed  on  the  reHefs,  together  with  iron  and  bronze 
helmets,  while  in  others  were  found  vases  and  ornamentally 
carv^ed  pieces  of  ivory.  Here  were  the  pictures  and  there  were 
the  objects  which  they  represented.  As  the  trenches  were  dug 
deeper  or  longer,  monuments  carved  or  inscribed  were  found 
daily."^ 

Whatever  objects  could  be  transported  were  sent  to  the 
British  Museum  in  London,  and  went  far  to  arouse  interest 
and  thus  secure  funds  to  enable  Layard  to  continue  his  opera- 
tions. During  this  expedition  the  palace  of  Sennacherib,  the 
walls  of  which  had  been  partly  laid  bare  during  the  first  period, 
was  still  further  explored,  and  in  addition  to  the  valuable  bas- 
reliefs  an  ancient  library,  consisting  of  thousands  of  clay  tablets, 
was  found  in  two  of  the  rooms,  and  this  was  greatly  increased 
by  Rassam's  discovery  of  the  North-West  palace  in  1854. 

In  1850  William  K.  Loftus  began  his  labors  in  this  field, 
but  none  of  his  discoveries  proved  so  valuable  as  his  descrij>- 
tions  of  various  mounds,  used  as  guides  to  this  day.  Con- 
cerning the  appearance  of  the  mounds  he  wrote:  "I  know 
of  nothing  more  exciting  or  impressive  than  the  first  sight 
of  one  of  these  great  Chaldean  piles  looming  in  solitary 
grandeur  from  the  surrounding  plains  and  marshes.  A  thou- 
sand thoughts  and  surmises  concerning  its  past  eventful  history 
and  origin — its  gradual  rise  and  rapid  fall — naturally  present 
themselves  to  the  mind  of  the  spectator.  The  hazy  atmosphere 
of  early  morning  is  peculiarly  favorable  to  considerations  and 
impressions  of  this  character,  and  the  gray  mist  intervening 
between  the  gazer  and  the  object  of  his  reflections  imparts  to  it  a 
dreamy  existence.  This  fairylike  effect  is  heightened  by  mirage, 
which  strangely  and  fantastically  magnifies  its  form,  elevating 
it  from  the  ground,  and  causing  it  to  dance  and  quiver  in  the 
rarefied  air.  No  wonder,  therefore,  that  the  beholder  is  lost  in 
pleasing  doubt  as  to  the  actual  reality  of  the  apparition  before 
him."* 

Of  all  the  Assyrian  discoveries  which  were  crowded  into 
the  last  century,  unquestionably  the  most  important  was  made 

^Rogers:  Hist,  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  154. 

*Lof  tus :  Travels  and  Researches  in  Chaldea  and  Susiana. 


208  THE   world's   progress. 

by  Rassam  in  1852  and  1853  when  he  laid  bare  the  mag^nificent 
palace  of  Assurbanipal,  in  which  was  found  the  royal  library. 
Here  the  king  had  caused  to  be  collected  tablets  embodying  the 
literature  of  both  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  and  numberless  royal 
inscriptions  of  both  states,  from  the  earliest  time.  Owing  to 
the  circumstance  of  their  having  been  inscribed  upon  tablets  of 
clay,  many  had  been  destroyed  as  the  building  in  which  they 
were  kept  fell  in  ruins.  Many  were  found  in  an  almost  perfect 
state  of  preservation  and  thousands  of  others  have  since  been 
joined  by  the  patient  labors  of  scholars.  At  this  point  Assyrian 
excavations  largely  ceased,  for  it  was  felt  that  unless  some 
understanding  of  these  tablets  could  be  gained,  it  was  scarcely 
worth  while  to  amass  more  of  them  at  such  great  outlays. 
Archaeologists  realized  that  the  inscriptions  must  be  deciphered 
before  funds  would  be  forthcoming  for  fresh  undertakings. 

We  have  seen  how  difficult  a  task  Egyptologists  had  in 
discovering  the  meaning  of  the  hieroglyphics,  and  how  the 
Rosetta  stone,  giving  one  decree  in  three  different  languages, 
at  last  led  to  an  understanding  of  the  whole.  The  Babylonians 
and  Assyrians  used  a  series  of  wedge-shaped  letters  or  symbols, 
which  has  given  the  name  cuneiform  to  their  written  language. 
These  wedge-shaped  signs  were  impressed  on  the  clay  by  a 
stylus,  and  several  of  them  are  united  to  form  a  syllabic  char- 
acter. There  are  about  400  of  these  complex  syllabic  signs 
in  the  syllabary,  instead  of  26  letters  as  in  English.  Where 
the  writing  on  the  tablets  is  very  close,  as  it  frequently  is,  it 
is  often  very  difficult  to  read  the  signs  correctly.  In  the  earlier 
Babylonian  period,  moreover,  the  form  differs  from  that  of  the 
later  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  period.  To  make  the  reading 
still  more  puzzling  they  are  polyphonic,  i.  e.,  have  several 
syllabic  values,  and  are  also  used  ideagraphically,  i.  e.,  may  be 
used  for  entire  words.  If  we  should  read  h  either  b,  p,  m,  d, 
etc.,  and  also  for  break,  run,  beside  with  only  the  context  to 
guide  us  we  would  have  a  parallel  case.  There  was  no  Rosetta 
stone  to  help  this  time,  and  the  tablets  long  remained  sealed 
books.  We  have  only  to  look  at  a  page  of  the  characters  to 
wonder  that  their  meaning  at  last  dawned  upon  the  tireless 
workers. 

Prominent  among  linguists  engaged  upon  Assyrian  inscrip- 
tions were  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson,  Fox  Talbot,  Jules  Oppert, 


STORY  05"  BABYLONIA  AND  ASSYRIA.  20g 

and  a  talented  Irish  scholar  by  the  name  of  Hincks.  At  last 
translations  of  certain  inscriptions  were  offered  by  these  men, 
but  critics  looked  at  the  apparently  meaningless  signs  and 
questioned  the  versions  rendered.  At  least,  they  insisted,  there 
was  no  way  to  prove  that  a  meaning  had  not  been  worked  into 
them,  rather  than  out  of  them. 

Finally  it  was  suggested  that  a  single  inscription,  hitherto 
unread,  be  sent  to  the  four  scholars  just  mentioned,  and  that 
they  be  asked  to  return  their  renderings  sealed,  to  a  committee 
appointed  to  examine  them.  To  the  amazement  of  the  world, 
the  translations  made  were  almost  identical,  differences  occur- 
ring in  those  portions  which  the  translators  themselves  had 
marked  as  uncertain.  This  was,  indeed,  a  triumph  for  students 
of  the  Assyrian  language,  and  compelled  a  general  agreement 
that  the  cuneiform  tongue  had  at  last  been  mastered.  Rapid 
advances  were  made  after  this  test,  which  was  made  in  1857. 
The  translation  of  numerous  tablets  was  at  once  eagerly  begun. 

George  Smith,  a  young  man  engaged  to  copy  inscriptions 
required  by  Rawlinson  for  some  material  he  was  about  to 
publish,  was  not  content  to  copy  meaningless  signs,  but  set 
to  work  to  understand  them.  So  rapidly  did  he  advance  in 
mastering  the  language  that  he  became  most  helpful  in  classi- 
fying the  tablets  stored  in  the  British  Museum.  In  connection 
with  his  work  there  one  incident  deserves  notice. 

The  clay  tablets  had  been  removed  as  carefully  as  possible 
from  the  ruins  of  the  library  at  Nineveh,  and  had  been  brought 
to  the  London  Museum  with  as  little  mishap  as  could  be 
expected.  Some  were  perfect,  some  partly  missing,  some  in 
fragments.  One  day  George  Smith  came  upon  a  deluge  story 
which  so  strongly  resembled  the  version  given  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment that  he  was  struck  by  the  similarity.  Now  recent  years 
have  disclosed  that  the  flood  legend  has  been  common  among 
all  Semitic  peoples,  but  the  fact  was  not  established  in  the 
middle  part  of  the  last  century.  Finding  many  portions  of 
the  story  lacking.  Smith  felt  that  he  would  like  to  go  in  search 
of  them.  The  whole  affair  was  widely  published,  and  Edwin 
Arnold,  then  editor  of  the  Daily  Telegraph  of  London,  became 
interested  in  it.  Through  his  influence  the  Telegraph  offered 
five  thousand  guineas  to  pay  the  expenses  of  an  expedition 
to  Nineveh,  under  the  direction  of  George  Smith,  to  recover, 
if  possible,  the  missing  portions  of  the  story.    In  1872,  accord- 


2IO  THE   WORIvD'S   progress. 

ingly,  Smith  started  out  upon  his  search  for  the  "Deluge 
Fragments,"  under  contract  to  telegraph  his  experiences  and 
discoveries  to  the  London  paper.  When  he  actually  came  upon 
a  fragment  of  the  deluge  epic,  it  was  regarded  in  England 
as  a  great  and  unexpected  triumph.  Two  other  fragments 
were  found,  and  then  the  Telegraph,  probably  thinking  it  had 
been  sufficiently  advertised,  decided  that  its  venture  had  suc- 
ceeded, and  Smitn  was  recaliea.  Returning  in  1873,  he  died 
in  Assyria  three  years  later  of  a  fever  contracted  in  the  marshy, 
fever-breeding  country. 

In  recent  years,  excavations  have  been  carried  on  in  the 
valley  of  the  Euphrates  under  auspices  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania.  Most  of  this  work  has  been  done  at  Nippur, 
and  accounts  of  the  discoveries  have  been  published.  An 
agreement  was  made  with  the  Turkish  government  to  the 
effect  that  all  remains  uncovered  be  turned  over  to  the  Imperial 
Museum  at  Constantinople.  So  generous  did  the  leaders  of 
this  college  band  prove  in  aiding  the  Turks  to  classify  objects 
found,  accepting  no  remuneration  for  their  services,  that  the 
Sultan  was  pleased  to  present  a  large  number  of  them  to  the 
Museum  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  where  they  are 
today  exhibited. 


TRANSPORT  OF  TIMBER  FOR  SARGON  S  PALACE. 

(Tbe  God  Ea.  represcated  in  the  lower  left-hand  corner  as  half  man,  half  fiah. 
ctcorto  the  fleet.) 


STORY   OF   BABYLONIA   AND  ASSYRIA.  211 

CHAPTER    11. 
Sources  of  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  History. 

In  considering  the  four  important  sources  of  Babylonian 
and  Assyrian  history,  we  may  note  first,  Old  Testament  writ- 
ings. 

Unquestionably  the  Bible  has  gained  more  through 
Assyrian  excavations  than  it  has  itself  contributed-  to  the 
history  of  that  country.  As  has  been  said  before,  the  Old 
Testament  consists  of  Hebrew  writings  which  portray  various 
phases  of  Hebrew  life,  and  mention  is  made  of  other  nations 
only  when  the  Chosen  People  by  force  of  circumstances 
were  thrown  in  direct  contact  with  them.  Since  their  king- 
dom was  overcome  by  Babylonians,  we  could  scarcely  expect 
Hebrew  writers  to  hold  unprejudiced  opinions  regarding  their 
own  conquerors;  nevertheless  whatever  facts  concerning  them 
crept  into  their  writings  have  been  verified  by  modern  dis- 
covery. 

Much  is  often  revealed  in  a  few  words,  as  is  characteristic 
of  Biblical  expression.  For  example,  see  how  much  is  con- 
densed in  the  following  sentence :  "  And  the  king  of  Egypt 
came  not  again  any  more  out  of  his  land :  for  the  king  of  Baby- 
lon had  taken  from  the  river  of  Egypt  unto  the  river  Euphrates 
all  that  pertained  to  the  king  of  Egypt." 

Not  alone  have  the  facts  recorded  in  the  Old  Testament 
proved  useful  to  those  engaged  in  reconstructing  the  history 
of  the  Tigris-Euphrates  nations,  but  the  desire  of  religious 
adherents  to  confirm  the  truth  and  accuracy  of  ancient  Hebrew 
writings  has  served  as  an  incentive  both  to  those  who  did  the 
work  and  to  those  who  by  contributions  made  the  task  possible. 

The  writings  of  the  early  Greeks  concerning  Babylonia 
and  Assyria  supply  another  source.  Berosus  was  a  Baby- 
lonian priest  connected  with  a  temple  sacred  to  Bel.  He 
lived  during  the  fourth  century  before  Christ,  when  Baby- 
lonia and  Assyria  had  become  Greek  provinces.  For  the 
Antiochus  he  wrote  a  lengthy  history  of  his  country,  which 
would  have  been  of  greatest  value  to  us  had  it  been  preserved. 


212  THE   world's   PROGRESS. 

Unfortunately  it  was  destroyed,  and  only  excerpts,  made  by 
Polyhistor  and  Apollodoras  of  the  first  century  B.C.,  are  now 
in  existence. 

Herodotus  devoted  more  than  twenty  chapters  of  his  first 
volume  to  Babylonia,  but  owing  to  certain  faults  we  have 
found  characteristic  of  his  writings,  he  has  led  some  scholars 
to  even  declare  that  he  never  saw  the  country  at  all.  While 
they  cannot  be  wholly  depended  upon,  his  writings  have  some 
value.  Other  Greek  writers  have  thrown  so  little  light  on 
Babylonian  life  that  we  shall  not  consider  them  here  at  all. 

Thirdly,  we  may  mention  Egyptian  records  as  a  source  for 
Mesopotamian  history.  The  Egyptian  hieroglyphics  and  the 
cuneiform  symbols  of  the  Assyrian  tongue  were  translated 
about  the  same  time,  so  that  little  actual  help  was  gained 
through  Egyptian  sources.  Nevertheless,  campaigns  waged 
by  Egyptian  kings  within  the  very  borders  of  Asiatic  countries, 
with  detailed  accounts  as  set  forth  upon  the  walls  of  Egyptian 
temples,  cannot  fail  to  aid  in  the  reconstruction  of  Assyrian 
growth  and  development. 

Lastly  and  most  important  of  all  are  the  monuments  and 
remains  unearthed  in  Mesopotamia  itself.  More  than  one 
hundred  thousand  clay  record  tablets  have  been  recovered; 
temples  and  palaces  have  been  excavated,  and  within  these 
were  found  alabaster  slabs  carved  with  many  scenes  character- 
istic of  Assyrian  life;  armour,  utensils  and  numerous  other 
articles  have  each  thrown  some  light  upon  the  ancient  civiliza- 
tion. The  value  of  this  first  hand,  or  original  material,  is 
priceless  indeed,  since  without  it  no  detailed  knowledge  of  these 
old  kingdoms  could  ever  have  been  hoped  for.  Explorations 
among  the  ruins  are  still  carried  on,  and  it  is  possible  that  the 
present  century  may  add  much  to  what  has  already  been  gained 
concerning  the  ancient  dwellers  in  the  once  fertile  valleys  of 
the  Euphrates  and  Tigris. 

PhysicaIv  Geography  oe  Babylonia  and  Assyria. 

If  you  will  look  closely  at  a  map  of  the  eastern  hemi- 
sphere, you  will  see  that  a  great  tract  of  desert  extends  across 
northern  Africa,  and  reaching  beyond  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
the  Isthmus  of  Suez  and  the  Red  Sea,  traverses  the  entire 
width  of  Asia  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.     This  desert  waste  is 


STORY   OI'   BABYLONIA  AND   ASSYRIA.  213 

SO  broken  by  plateaus  and  mountain  ranges  that  its  vast  extent 
is  scarcely  realized.  Rivers  occasionally  cross  it,  producing 
fertile  valleys  which,  generally  speaking,  support  the  life  of 
the  whole  area. 

We  are  now  concerned  with  the  location  and  topography 
of  the  ancient  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  kingdoms,  and  of 
those  districts  lying  adjacent.  North  of  the  Persian  Gulf 
some  considerable  distance,  we  find  the  Armenian  mountains. 
These  ranges  are  loftier  than  most  in  Western  Asia,  piercing 
high  above  the  eternal  snow-line.  During  winter  their  sides 
and  gorges  are  massed  with  snow,  which  melts  rapidly  with 
the  warmth  of  spring  and  heat  of  summer.  The  drainage 
of  the  mountains  has  resulted  in  many  streams,  which  unite 
to  form  the  Euplirates  on  the  western  slopes,  and  on  the 
eastern  slopes,  form  the  Tigris.  Ages  ago  these  two  rivers 
emptied  into  the  Persian  Gulf  at  points  some  distance  from 
each  other.  But  such  heavy  deposits  of  rich  mountain  loam 
have  been  brought  down  by  the  streams,  that  they  have  ex- 
tended the  land  far  into  the  gulf,  pushing  the  water  back 
for  some  hundred  miles.  Joining  one  another  in  the  area 
thus  formed,  the  waters  of  the  two  streams  reach  the  gulf 
today  as  one  mighty  river  with  many  mouths.  We  may 
judge  how  great  changes  this  land-building  process  has 
wrought  by  the  fact  that  the  town  of  Ur,  now  nearly  two 
hundred  miles  from  the  gulf,  was  a  sea-port  at  the  time  of 
which  we  are  now  studying.  The  annual  increase  of  the  land  is 
about  115  feet. 

Herodotus'  statement  that  "Egypt  is  the  gift  of  the  Nile," 
might  have  been  made  with  equal  truth  of  the  Euphrates  and 
Babylonia.  Here  again  an  annual  overflow  refreshes  a  valley, 
while  in  antiquity  a  network  of  canals  provided  water,  fertility, 
and  humidity  for  districts  sloping  off  gently  on  either  side. 

Today  this  territory  is  held  by  the  Turks,  and  with 
their  ruinous  policy  of  trying  to  extract  all  possible  revenue 
from  their  lands  while  doing  nothing  to  improve  them,  the 
old  canals  are  abandoned,  none  others  take  their  place,  and 
the  rivers  wander  today  at  will,  leaving  part  of  the  area 
parched  and  unproductive,  and  converting  the  rest  into  fever- 
breeding  swamps  and  marshes. 

The  Euphrates  is  the  longer  of  the  two  rivers.     Taking 


214  THE   world's    progress. 

its  rise  west  of  a  lofty  mountain,  it  receives  several  tributaries 
near  its  source,  but  none  join  it  during  the  last  eight  hundred 
miles  of  its  course.  The  snows  melt  gradually ;  in  March  the 
stream  begins  to  overflow  its  channel;  high  water  mark  is 
reached  by  the  first  of  June,  and  July  finds  the  waters  receding. 
This  river  is  very  winding  in  its  course,  at  one  place  being 
but  one  hundred  miles  from  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  near 
Babylon  running  along  within  twenty-five  miles  of  the  Tigris, 
only  to  immediately  branch  off  again  to  the  south.  Its  entire 
length  is  about  eighteen  hundred  miles,  and  most  of  the  water 
is  spent  before  it  reaches  the  Gulf. 

The  Tigris  is  somewhat  different  from  its  sister  stream. 
Its  name  signifies  "  the  swift,"  or  the  "  arrowy,"  and  indi- 
cates its  rapid  current,  whereas  the  Euphrates  flows  more 
gently.  Not  so  broad  as  the  Euphrates,  the  Tigris  is  much 
deeper.  On  the  east  of  the  high  mountains  wherein  this 
river  has  its  rise,  spring  comes  quickly ;  the  water  rises  rapidly, 
and  the  period  of  its  overflow  is  short.  Beginning  to  rise  in 
March,  the  first  of  May  sees  the  high  water  mark,  and  by 
the  last  of  June  the  stream  is  fast  finding  its  usual  volume. 

The  territory  between  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  the 
Greeks  called  Mesopotamia,  meaning  "  between  two  rivers," 
but  they  applied  the  name  to  the  northern  portion  of  the 
district — the  home  of  the  Assyrians.  As  generally  used  to- 
day, the  term  Mesopotamia  signifies  the  whole  region. 

The  southern  portion,  bordering  on  the  Persian  Gulf,  has 
a  deep  alluvial  soil,  built  up  by  the  yearly  deposit  of  the 
rivers.  Like  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  it  has  been  the  repository 
of  fine  silt.  This  portion  from  its  capital  city  Babylon  was 
called  Babylonia.  As  we  might  expect,  this  was  the  country 
first  settled  because  it  was  the  more  accessible.  Its  wide, 
monotonous  plains,  enriched  with  the  fertile  mountain  loam, 
afforded  the  most  productive  farm  lands  in  the  world. 
Herodotus  told  of  their  prodigious  yield  of  grain :  "  This 
territory  is  of  all  that  we  know  the  best  by  far  for  producing 
grain;  as  to  trees,  it  does  not  attempt  to  bear  them,  either 
fig,  or  vine  or  olive,  but  for  producing  grain  it  is  so  good 
that  it  returns  as  much  as  two-hundred-fold  for  the  average. 
an(i,  when  it  bears  its  best,  it  produces  three-hundred-fold.  The 
blades  of  the  wheat  and  barley  there  grew  to  be  four  fingers' 


STORY   OF   BABYLONIA   AND   ASSYRIA.  215 

broad;  and  from  millet  and  sesame  seed,  how  large  a  tree 
grows,  I  know  myself,  but  shall  not  record,  being  well  aware 
that  even  what  has  already  been  said  relating  to  the  crops 
produced  has  been  enough  to  cause  disbelief  in  those  who 
have  not  visited  Babylonia."  Theophrastus  wrote:  "In 
Babylon  the  wheat  fields  are  regularly  mown  twice,  and  then 
fed  off  with  beasts  to  keep  down  the  luxuriance  of  the  leaf; 
otherwise  the  plant  does  not  run  to  ear.  When  this  is  done 
the  return  in  lands  that  are  badly  cultivated  is  fiftyfold,  while 
in  those  that  are  well  farmed  it  is  a  hundredfold." 

The  land  of  Babylonia  has  been  happily  compared  with  the 
southern  half  of  our  state  of  Louisiana,  which  it  resembles 
in  marshy  districts.  Again  it  might  be  likened  to  the  Egyptian 
Delta,  being  of  course,  larger, — something  like  Denmark  in 
point  of  area.  Possessing  no  rocks  or  mountains,  the  country 
seemed  at  first  to  be  devoid  of  building  material.  It  has  been 
supposed  that  its  primitive  people  first  sheltered  themselves 
in  huts  built  of  reeds  which  grew  abundantly  along  the  river 
banks.  After  awhile  it  was  discovered  that  clay  mud  fur- 
nished a  fair  material  when  shaped  into  bricks  and  dried  in 
the  sun.  A  more  enduring  brick  was  later  made  by  baking 
the  brick  in  ovens.  This  oven-baked  brick  as  well  as  the  sun- 
dried  brick  constituted  the  great  building  material  of  Babylonia 
for  all  subsequent  time. 

The  district  north  of  the  alluvial  line,  enclosed  by  rivers  and 
mountains,  in  time  became  the  kingdom  of  Assyria.  This  region 
differed  greatly  from  the  southern  land.  It  was  made  up  of 
low  ranges  on  the  north,  rolled  gently  to  the  south,  and  sup- 
plied excellent  pasturage.  Stone  and  material  suitable  to  build- 
ing purposes  were  available,  but  the  people,  accustomed  to  the 
clay  bricks  of  their  old  home  in  Babylonia,  never  made  use  of 
the  more  substantial  building  stuff.  Indeed  the  Assyrians  were 
not  at  all  of  an  inventive  mind,  as  another  illustration  will 
plainly  show.  In  Babylonia,  because  the  ground  was  low  and 
level,  the  people  were  obliged  to  construct  artificial  heights  for 
building  sites,  thus  to  escape  marshy  exhalations  and  trouble- 
some insects.  They  erected  huge  piles  of  sun-dried  brick  and 
crowned  these  with  their  palaces  and  temples. 

Now  the  Assyrians  were  in  the  beginning  colonists  who 
had  gone  out  of  the  mother  state  to  find  less  populated  regions 


2I6  THE   WORI^d's   progress. 

farther  north.  There  were  hills  and  elevations  in  abundance 
in  Assyria,  but  holding  to  the  custom  they  had  so  long  fol- 
lowed, they  continued  to  construct  great  foundations  of  bricks 
for  their  buildings.  It  is  curious  indeed  to  find  them,  through- 
out their  history,  expending  time,  labor  and  resources  to 
produce  what  nature  had  already  provided. 

Assyria  was  somewhat  larger  than  Babylonia,  and  has 
been  compared  to  the  state  of  Illinois  in  size.  While  the  north- 
ern mountains  and  the  Gulf  afforded  definite  boundaries,  the 
limits  to  the  east  and  west  were  never  certain  and  both  Baby- 
lonians and  Assyrians  pushed  out  in  each  direction  as  they 
became  more  powerful,  contracting  again  if  their  strength 
weakened.  On  the  west  a  desert  separated  them  from  the 
Mediterranean,  and  while  various  tribes  held  the  country  east 
of  the  Tigris  in  early  times,  the  Medes  later  conquered  the 
region  east  of  Assyria,  and  Persia  reached  away  to  the  south- 
east. 

There  are  two  seasons  in  these  valleys — the  rainy  period, 
lasting  from  November  to  March,  and  the  dry  season,  filling 
out  the  remainder  of  the  year.  Babylonia  was  never  subject 
to  the  cold  storms  of  Assyria,  and  the  kings  of  the  latter 
country,  after  they  conquered  Babylonia,  frequently  main- 
tained winter  palaces  in  the  old  capital,  Babylon.  Summer 
is  intensely  hot  near  the  Gulf.  In  recent  years  this  has  been 
a  serious  obstacle  to  confront  those  carrying  on  excavations 
here. 

In  ancient  times  an  extensive  system  of  canals  and  ditches 
made  it  possible  to  keep  the  land  under  constant  cultivation, 
thus  preventing  in  a  large  measure  the  sand  storms  that  now 
spread  over  the  country,  causing  much  suffering  and  even 
death.  Under  Turkish  rule  at  present,  the  whole  region  is 
left  desolate. 

In  spite  of  Herodotus  to  the  contrary,  certain  kinds  of 
trees  grew  in  Babylonia.  The  fig,  apple,  almond  and  walnut 
were  native.  The  date  palm  ministered  to  the  wants  of  the 
people  in  manifold  ways.  An  old  Persian  poem  sung  of  its 
360  uses,  while  the  Greeks  claimed  that  it  supplied  the  Baby- 
lonians with  bread,  wine,  vinegar,  honey,  rope,  fuel,  wood 
for  furniture,  and  food  for  cattle.  A  wide  variety  of  grains 
and  vegetables  were  produced. 


STORY  OF  BABYI.ONIA  AND  ASSYRIA.  21/ 

Wild  animals  were  plentiful.  The  Mesopotamian  lion  was 
thought  milder  than  its  jungle  cousin.  Buffaloes  were 
domesticated.  Leopards,  hyaenas,  wild  boars,  gazelles,  foxes 
and  hares  were  found,  while  birds  and  fishes  abounded. 

Altogether  this  was  a  spot  where  life  was  favorable  for 
man,  and  it  was  natural  that  w'andering  tribes  that  came 
thither  should  soon  abandon  their  roving  habits  for  the  surer 
livelihood  promised  by  a  fixed  home. 


sargon's  standard  (with  figure  of  asshur). 


2l8  THE   world's   progress. 


CHAPTER   III. 

Prehistoric  Chaldea. 

We  have  already  noted  that  prehistoric  periods  are  those 
preceding  written  records.  Uncertainty  enters  into  all 
attempts  to  reconstruct  such  a  period  for  any  people,  and 
especially  has  this  been  true  of  Babylonia.  However,  when 
the  library  of  Nineveh  was  unearthed,  tablets  were  discovered 
which  shed  some  light  on  those  remote  ages. 

The  land  we  call  Babylonia  was  once  called  Chaldea.  So 
we  shall  call  it  during  its  prehistoric  age — as  we  call  the  British 
Island  Britain  in  the  beginning  of  its  history,  and  later, 
England.  By  the  term  Chaldea  we  are  to  understand  that 
portion  of  the  valleys  which  extended  around  the  Persian 
Gulf.  It  was  inhabited  at  the  earliest  period  known.  Prob- 
ably its  first  settlers  were  a  branch  of  the  Turanian  or  Yellow 
Race,  to  which  the  Chinese,  Japanese,  Monguls  and  present- 
day  Turks  belong.  That  the  Chaldeans  came  from  some 
other  locality  into  this  land  is  not  doubted,  but  whence 
they  came  is  not  known. 

The  southern  part  of  Chaldea  was  called  Shumir — the 
Hebrews  writing  it  Shinar;  the  land  immediately  north  they 
called  Accad.  The  dwellers  in  both  districts  came  from  the 
same  stock  and  spoke  practically  the  same  language.  The 
name  Accad  means  mountains,  or  highlands,  and  it  has  been 
surmised  that  it  may  have  attached  to  the  inhabitants  from 
some  earlier  home. 

These  early  people  may  have  migrated  to  Chaldea  five 
or  six  thousand  years  before  the  Christian  era.  Of  their 
coming  and  first  settlements,  nothing  is  known.  When  we 
first  learn  of  them,  they  had  reached  quite  a  degree  of  civiliza- 
tion, having  canals  for  irrigating  the  lands  unreached  by  the 
river;  they  had  also  devised  the  cuneiform  system  of  writ- 
ing— an  advance  on  the  picture  system,  earlier  in  use. 

The  history  of  their  strange  symbols  was  probably  this :  in 
ages  bygone  they  had  invented  a  system  of  picture  writing, 
as  all  primitive  people  seem  to  have  done.    As  they  advanced. 


STORY  OF   BABYLONIA  AND  ASSYRIA.  2Jg 

too  much  time  was  required  to  copy  the  elaborate  pictures 
in  their  entirety,  and  so  the  principal  outlines  were  used  to 
represent  the  pictures  themselves.  When  these  people 
migrated  to  Chaldea,  and  were  reduced  to  clay  tablets  on 
which  to  write,  it  was  easier  to  make  straight  lines  than 
curved  ones.  In  this  way  the  written  language  continued 
to  undergo  changes  until  it  was  eventually  made  up  of  wedge- 
shaped  symbols,  one  of  the  clear  results  of  the  use  of  the  clay 
tablets. 

Our  principal  knowledge  concerning  the  Chaldeans  per- 
tains to  their  religion,  which  is  believed  to  have  been  one  of 
the  earliest  religions  of  the  world. 

The  religious  instinct  seems  to  have  been  inborn  with 
man.  Some  form  and  degree  of  worship  has  been  found  among 
all  primitive  people  and  is  cruder  or  more  elevated  according 
to  the  stage  of  development.  Primitive  man  felt  himself 
able  to  cope  with  many  of  the  conditions  around  him,  but 
he  soon  found  that  the  very  agencies  which  helped  might 
also  injure  him.  The  sun,  whose  light  and  warmth  gave 
life  to  his  growing  crops,  might  also  wither  them  with  its 
intense  heat.  The  rain  which  renewed  and  refreshed  the 
fields,  might  come  in  torrents  and  lay  them  low.  Gradually 
all  these  agencies  were  regarded  as  Beings,  which  must  be 
importuned.  The  religion  of  the  Chaldeans  taught  man  how 
to  guard  himself  against  the  harmful  forces  in  the  world,  and 
every  animate  and  inanimate  thing  was  endowed  with  a  spirit. 

A  series  of  tablets  treating  of  this  ancient  religion  was 
recovered  by  Rassam,  and  they  fall  into  three  divisions :  those 
treating  of  **  Evil  Spirits,"  others  concerning  diseases,  and 
last,  those  devoted  to  prayers  and  hymns  of  praise. 

The  Accadian  conceived  of  the  earth  as  resembling  a 
huge,  inverted  bowl.  The  thickness  represented  the  earth's 
crust ;  the  hollow  beneath  was  thought  of  as  a  bottomless  pit, 
destined  to  be  the  final  dwelling  place  of  man,  and  was  the 
abode  of  demons.  Above  the  earth  were  two  heavens;  the 
higher,  supported  by  a  lofty  mountain:  the  lower  containing 
seven  kind  and  friendly  planets,  which  wandered  at  will 
through  its  wide  domains.  Opposed  to  these  were  seven  fiery 
phantoms.     Over  all  dwelt  the  great  Spirit  Ana.. 


220  THK   world's   PROGRSISS. 

"  Between  the  lower  heaven  and  the  surface  of  the  earth 
is  the  atmospheric  region,  the  reahn  of  Mermer,  the  Wind, 
where  he  drives  the  clouds,  rouses  the  storms,  and  whence 
he  pours  down  the  rain,  which  is  stored  in  the  great  reservoir 
of  Ana,  in  the  heavenly  Ocean.  As  to  the  earthly  Ocean,  it 
is  fancied  as  a  broad  river,  flowing  all  around  the  edge  of 
the  imaginary  inverted  bowl;  in  its  waters  dwells  Ea,  the 
great  Spirit  of  the  Earth  and  Waters,  either  in  the  form  of 
a  fish,  whence  he  is  frequently  called  "  Ea  the  fish,"  or  "  the 
exalted  fish,*  or  on  a  magnificent  ship,  with  which  he  travels 
around  the  earth,  guarding  and  protecting  it. 

"  The  minor  spirits  of  the  earth  are  not  much  spoken 
of  except  in  a  body,  a  sort  of  host  or  legion.  All  the  more 
terrible  are  the  seven  spirits  of  the  abyss,  the  Maskim,  of 
whom  it  is  said  that,  although  their  seat  is  in  the  depths  of 
the  earth,  yet  their  voice  resounds  on  the  heights  also;  they 
reside  at  will  in  the  immensity  of  space,  *  nbt  enjoying  a 
good  name  either  in  heaven  or  on  earth.'  Their  greatest 
delight  is  to  subvert  the  orderly  course  of  nature,  to  cause 
earthquakes,   inundations,   ravaging  tempests."  ^ 

The  Maskim  were  ever  feared  and  hated  as  is  shown  by 
the  following,  translated  from  one  of  the  tablets: 

"  They  are  seven !  they  are  seven ! — Seven  are  they  in 
the  depths  of  Ocean, — seven  they  are,  disturbers  of  the  face 
of  Heaven. — ^They  arise  from  the  depths  of  Ocean,  from  hidden 
lurking-places. — They  spread  like  snares. — Male  they  are  not, 
female  they  are  not.  Wives  they  have  not,  children  are  not 
born  to  them. — Order  they  know  not,  nor  beneficence; — 
prayers  and  supplications  they  hear  not.  Horses  grown  in 
the  bowels  of  the  mountains — foes  of  EA — they  are  throne- 
bearers  of  the  gods — ^they  sit  in  the  roads  and  make  them  un- 
safe.— The  fiends!  The  fiends!  They  are  seven,  they  are 
seven,  seven  are  they! 

"Spirit  of  Heaven,  be  they  conjured!  Spirit  of  Earth, 
be  they  conjured !  " 

»Ragozin:  Cnaldea. 


STORY  O^   BABYLONIA   AND   ASSYRIA.  221 

A  Charm.. 

Seven  are  they,  they  are  seven; 

In  the  caverns  of  ocean  they  dwell, 
They  are  clothed  in  the  lightnings  of  heaven. 

Of  their  growth  the  deep  waters  can  tell; 
Seven  are  they,  they  are  seven. 

Broad  is  their  way  and  their  course  is  wide, 

Where  the  seeds  of  destruction  they  sow, 
O'er  the  tops  of  the  hills  where  they  stride. 

To  lay  waste  the  smooth  highways  below,  — 
Broad  is  their  way  and  their  course  is  wide. 

Man  they  are  not,  nor  womankind, 

For  in  fury  they  sweep  from  the  main, 
And  have  wedded  no  wife  but  the  wind. 

And  no  child  have  begotten  but  pain, — 
Man  they  are  not,  nor  womankind. 

Fear  is  not  in  them,  nor  awe; 

Supplication  they  heed  not,  nor  prayer. 
For  they  know  no  compassion  nor  law, 

And  are  deaf  to  the  cries  of  despair,  — 
Fear  is  not  in  them,  nor  awe. 

Cursed  they  are,  they  are  cursed. 

They  are  foes  to  wise  EA'S  name ; 
By  the   whirlwind  are  all  things   dispersed 

On  the  paths  of  the  flash  of  their  flame, — 
Cursed  are  they,  they  are  cursed. 

Spirit  of  Heaven,  oh  help!     Help,  oh  Spirit  of  Earth! 

They  are  seven,  thrice  said  they  are  seven; 
For  the  gods  they  are  Bearers  of  Thrones, 

But  for  men  they  are  Breeders  of  Dearth 
And  the  authors  of  sorrows  and  moans. 

They  are  seven,  thrice  said  they  are  seven. 
Spirit  of  Heaven,  oh  help!     Help,  oh  Spirit  of  Earth! 
1—16  — Rendered  into  verse  by  Dyer, 


222  THE   world's   PROGRESS. 

Besides  these  seven  hated  ones,  there  were  numberless 
demons  who  could  work  all  manner  of  evil  for  man.  They 
were  invisible  and  brought  sickness,  sorrow,  insanity,  and 
grief.  No  house  was  secure  against  them,  and  no  bolt  strong 
enough  to  keep  them  out. 

To  contend  against  so  much  evil,  it  was  necessary  to 
employ  conjurers  and  those  skilled  in  magic,  who  by  incanta- 
tions and  mixtures  of  herbs  might  discover  the  demons  and 
put  them  to  flight.  Like  the  Egyptians,  the  Chaldeans 
believed  that  when  one  was  ill,  a  demon  had  taken  possession 
of  his  body,  which  must  be  driven  out  before  recovery  would 
be  possible.  As  a  result  of  this  belief,  the  science  of  medicine 
never  developed  in  Babylonia.  Even  in  its  advanced  period, 
magicians  treated  the  sick. 

Charms  and  talismans  were  in  great  demand  to  ward  off 
demons.  They  were  worn  by  the  living  and  adorned  the 
dead.  Many  articles  of  furniture  were  made  to  serve  two 
purposes — as  household  conveniences  or  ornaments,  and  talis- 
mans. Thus  the  winged  bulls  which  have  been  found  guard- 
ing the  portals  of  royal  palaces  were  placed  there  to  keep  out 
demons  who  would  manage  in  some  way  to  creep  in  unless 
prevented  by  eternal  vigilance. 

It  was  believed  that  certain  of  these  demons  were  so  for- 
bidding in  aspect  that  should  they  but  catch  sight  of  their 
own  faces,  they  would  be  frightened  away.  Therefore  a  most 
dreadful  demon  was  fashioned,  as  terrible  and  fierce  as  human 
ingenuity  could  conceive.  This  impersonated  the  south-west 
wind — the  wind  which  brought  burning  heat  and  drought  in 
its  wake.  An  image  thus  made  was  placed  in  southwest 
windows,  with  the  hope  that  the  approaching  demon  might 
look  upon  himself  and  flee  in  terror. 

As  time  went  on,  the  Chaldeans  progressed  in  their 
religious  beliefs,  and  the  third  series  of  tablets  record  prayers 
and  hymns  of  adoration. 

Nothing  was  more  natural  than  that  they  should  worship 
the  sun,  as  a  manifestation  of  divinity  which  provided  heat, 
light  and  life  itself,  for  the  children  of  the  earth.  Some 
of  these  hymns  are  beautiful  in  their  conception. 

"  O  Sun,  I  have  called  unto  thee  in  the  bright  heavens. 
In  the  shadow  of  the  cedar  art  thou;  Thy  feet  are  on  the 


STORY  OF   BABYLONIA  AND  ASSYRIA.  223 

summits — The  countries  have  wished  for  thee,  they  have 
longed  for  thy  coming,  O  Lord!  Thy  radiant  hght  illumines 
all  countries.  Thou  makest  lies  to  vanish,  thou  destroyest 
the  noxious  influence  of  portents,  omens,  spells,  dreams  and 
evil  apparitions;  thou  turnest  wicked  plots  to  a  happy  issue. 

"  O  Sun !  thou  hast  stepped  forth  from  the  background 
of  heaven,  thou  hast  pushed  back  the  bolts  of  the  brilliant 
heaven, — yea,  the  gate  of  heaven.  O  Sun!  above  the  land 
thou  hast  raised  thy  head!  O  Sun!  thou  hast  covered  the 
immeasurable  space  of  heaven  and  countries ! " 

The  sun  disappeared  at  evening  tide,  and  during  the  night 
contended  with  the  spirits  of  darkness.  Some  other  protec- 
tion was  needed  for  man  while  darkness  reigned.  So  fire  was 
brought  into  existence,  and  was  also  regarded  as  worthy  of 
worship : 

"  Thou  who  drivest  away  the  evil  Maskim,  who  furtherest 
the  well-being  of  life,  who  strikest  the  breast  of  the  wicked 
with  terror, — Fire,  the  destroyer  of  foes,  dread  weapon  which 
drivest  away  Pestilence." 

Certain  wandering  Turanian  tribes  today  cling  to  a 
religion  much  like  the  one  so  briefly  described.  Like  their 
remote  ancestors,  they  have  conjurers  instead  of  priests. 

When  they  had  reached  this  stage  of  development,  the 
Chaldeans  were  overpowered  by  a  vast  barbaric  horde. 

The  Story  of  Genesis  Relative  to  the  First  Settlement 

IN  Shumir. 
"And  the  whole  earth  was  of  one  language,  and  of  one 
speech.  And  it  came  to  pass,  as  they  journeyed  from  the  east, 
that  they  found  a  plain  in  the  land  of  Shinar;  and  they  dwelt 
there.  And  they  said  one  to  another,  Go  to,  let  us  make 
brick,  and  burn  them  thoroughly.  And  they  had  brick  for 
stone,  and  slime  had  they  for  mortar.  And  they  said,  Go 
to,  let  us  build  us  a  city  and  a  tower,  whose  top  may  reach 
unto  heaven ;  and  let  us  make  us  a  name,  lest  we  be  scattered 
abroad  upon  the  face  of  the  whole  earth.  And  the  Lord  came 
down  to  see  the  city  and  the  tower  which  the  children  of 
men  builded.  And  the  Lord  said.  Behold,  the  people  is  one, 
and  they  have  all  one  language;  and  this  tfiey  begin  to  do; 
and  now  nothing  will  be  restrained  from  them,  which  they 
have  imagined  to  do.     Go  to,  let  us  go  down  and  there  con- 


224  THE   world's   progress. 

found  their  language,  that  they  may  not  understand  one 
another's  speech.  So  the  Lord  scattered  them  abroad  from 
thence  upon  the  face  of  all  the  earth;  and  they  left  off  to 
build  the  city.  Therefore  is  the  name  of  it  called  Babel  ;^ 
because  the  Lord  did  there  confound  the  language  of  all  the 
earth;  and  from  thence  did  the  Lord  scatter  them  abroad 
upon  the  face  of  all  the  earth. 


"  And  Nimrod  was  a  mighty  hunter  before  the  Lord ; 
wherefore  it  is  said,  Even  as  Nimrod  the  mighty  hunter  be- 
fore the  Lord.  And  the  beginning  of  his  kingdom  was  Babel, 
and  Erech,  and  Accad,  and  Calneh,  in  the  land  of  Shinar, 
Out  of  that  land  went  forth  Asshur,  and  6uilded  Nineveh, 
and  the  city  Rehoboth,  and  Calah.  And  Resen  between 
Nineveh  and  Calah;  the  same  is  a  great  city. 

"  And  Terah  took  Abram  his  son,  and  Lot  the  son  of 
Haran,  his  son's  son,  and  Sarai  his  daughter-in-law,  his  son 
Abram's  wife;  and  they  went  forth  with  them  from  Ur  of 
the  Chaldees,  to  go  into  the  land  of  Canaan;  and  they  came 
unto  Haran,  and  dwelt  there." — Genesis  10  and  IL 

The  first  great  Semitic  invasion  took  place  probably  about 
the  beginning  of  the  fourth  millennium  B.C.,  and  it  seems  impos- 
sible to  assign  to  it  a  more  definite  date.  The  later  Babylonians, 
like  the  Chinese,  gave  great  antiquity  to  their  nation,  reckoning 
back  into  hundreds  of  thousands  of  years.  Their  beginnings 
belonged  to  so  remote  a  time  that  adding  years  inconceivably 
was  but  another  way  of  saying  that  certain  events  happened 
very  long  ago,  so  long,  indeed,  that  no  record  or  monument 
remained  to  give  evidence  of  events  which  had  survived  only 
in  stories  handed  down,  from  father  to  son,  for  thousands  of 
generations. 

Like  the  Hebrews  and  Arabs,  these  people  belonged  to  the 
Semitic  race,  and  from  whence  they  came  has  long  been  a 
matter  of  conjecture.  Scholars  are  now  agreed  that  Arabia 
had  been  their  home  and  that  there  they  had  lived  as  shepherds 
and  herdsmen.    They  poured  in  overwhelming  forces  into  the 

'  This  is  a  late  popular  etymology.  Babel  means  "the  gate  of  God,"  and 
has  no  conuer^tios  with  the  Hebrew  verb  balal  "to  confound." 


STORY  OP  BABYLONIA  AND  ASSYRIA.  225 

land  of  Chaldea,  killing  some  of  the  inhabitants,  driving  others 
out  of  the  country,  and  assimilating  the  rest. 

The  Chaldeans  had  reached  a  much  higher  degree  of  cul- 
ture than  their  conquerors,  who  rapidly  took  on  the  civiliza- 
tion of  their  adopted  country.  As  in  England  the  Saxon  and 
Norman  for  some  generations  after  the  conquest  pursued  each 
his  native  life  and  customs,  little  influenced  by  the  other,  so  in 
Chaldea  at  first  the  Semitic  herdsman  followed  his  pastoral 
life  outside  the  brick-walled  cities  of  the  Chaldeans. 

Some  have  thought  that  an  invasion  of  Cushites,  or  Ethi- 
opians, had  preceded  the  invasion  of  the  Semites  in  Chaldea, 
and  have  claimed  that  the  language,  customs  and  culture  in 
the  land  when  conquered  by  the  Semites  was  the  result  of  a 
blending  of  Turanian  and  Ethiopian.  The  theory  has  been 
vigorously  opposed  by  other  authorities  who  contend  that  the 
invading  Semites  found  only  pure  Turanian  stock.  However 
that  may  be,  the  civilization  and  culture  of  Chaldea,  whether 
simply  Turanian,  or  Turanian-Cushite,  was  soon  taken  on  by 
the  newcomers.  Adopting  the  Chaldean  language,  they  used 
it  for  all  their  inscriptions,  writings  and  literature.  Even 
after  the  speech  of  the  people  had  become  quite  a  different 
tongue,  as  a  result  of  its  assimilation  with  the  Semitic,  still  in 
all  written  records  the  early  Chaldean  language — or  Sumerian, 
as  it  is  generally  called — was  alone  used.  Assyriologists  have 
often  noted  that  "while  the  language  was  Sumerian,  the  spirit 
of  the  writings  was  Semitic." 

Because  the  land  of  Chaldea  was  so  accessible,  and  offered 
advantages  so  superior  to  surrounding  countries — ^plentiful 
water  and  a  fertile  soil, — it  became  a  veritable  bee-hive  of 
humanity.  When  the  Semites  first  came  thither,  they  were 
a  fierce,  warlike  people;  but  soon,  under  new  conditions,  they 
became  peace-loving,  as  the  Turanians  before  them  had  been. 
Shortly  they  were  unable  to  hold  the  valley  against  new  tribes 
that  unceasingly  swarmed  into  the  country. 

Prior  to  2000  B.C.  Ashur  had  been  settled  probably  in  part 
at  least,  by  emigrants  from  the  south  who  may  have  united  with 
other  Semites  from  North  Mesopotamia  and  in  time  they 
founded  the  state  of  Assyria.  Somewhat  later,  the  ancestors  of 
the  Hebrews,  according  to  one  of  the  O.  T.  traditions,  de- 
parted from  the  land  of  Chaldea  for  Harran  in  Mesopotamia, 


226  THE  world's  progress. 

and  later  entered  Canaan,  on  the  east  coast  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea.  Each  of  these  little  bands  founded  states  which 
developed  such  peculiar  characteristics,  that  after  the  lapse 
of  a  few  ages,  it  would  scarcely  have  occurred  to  an  observer 
that  the  ancestry,  early  environment,  and  traditions  of  all 
had  been  the  same. 

It  was  not  strange,  then,  that  the  Hebrews  of  later  time, 
trying  to  account  for  the  diversity  of  languages  and  nations, 
made  this  swarming  valley  the  site  of  the  scattering  of  the 
tribes  and  the  confusion  of  tongues. 

Those  who  remained  in  Chaldea  became  a  peaceful  farm- 
ing people,  caring  not  at  all  for  war.  The  Assyrians,  while 
of  the  same  stock,  developed  very  differently.  There  were 
several  reasons  for  this.  First,  their  country  was  less  access- 
ible than  Chaldea,  whose  shore  was  washed  by  the  Persian 
Gulf,  and  so  it  suffered  less  from  invasions,  and  was  allowed 
to  keep  a  more  purely  Semitic  civilization.  Again,  having 
gone  out  from  Chaldea  before  they  became  devoted  to  peace- 
ful pursuits,  the  Assyrians  retained  and  fostered  their  original 
warlike  dispositions.  The  more  temperate  climate  of  Assyria 
was  more  invigorating  and  produced  men  of  greater  endurance 
than  did  the  kingdom  to  the  south. 

Both  Chaldea  and  Assyria  alike,  developed  small  states, 
each  led  by  a  city  in  which  had  been  built  a  temple  sacred 
to  some  local  deity.  Each  community  was  presided  over  by  one 
who  combined  the  duties  of  king  and  priest. 

Such  was  the  condition  of  affairs  when  the  first  written 
records,  more  or  less  complete,  bring  some  degree  of  certainty 
and  less  conjecture  into  the  development  of  these  nations. 
And  here  we  arrive  at  the  beginning  of  Mesopotamian  history, 
properly  so-called. 


A  JAR-SHAPED  COFFIN  OF  CLAY. 


STORY  OP  BABYLONIA  AND  ASSYRIA.  327 


CHAPTER  IV. 
City-States  Before  the  Rise  of  Babylon. 

We  have  seen  that  the  Chaldeans  were  in  time  assimilated 
with  the  invading  Semites,  producing  eventually  a  new  nation. 
It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  this  was  at  once  accomplished, 
or  that  the  dawn  of  authentic  history  found  such  a  process 
completed.  Rather,  the  Chaldeans  held  tenaciously  to  the  south, 
the  Semites  kept  farther  to  the  north,  and  for  many  centuries 
the  two  races  fought  for  dominance  in  the  valley. 

As  early  as  4500  B.C.,  a  record  inscribes  one  as  "king  of 
Kengi,"  but  his  kingdom  probably  included  but  a  few  cities 
added  to  his  own. 

Several  cities  had  been  founded  at  a  remote  time  and  these 
now  grew  rapidly  in  importance.  Each  was  built  around 
a  temple  dedicated  to  some  particular  divinity.  Eridu  wor- 
shipped the  god  EA,  father  of  waters;  Ur  was  sacred  to 
Sin,  the  moon-god,  and  later  kings,  of  the  dynasty  of  Ur, 
added  the  name  Sin  to  their  own,  as  for  example,  Ine-Sin, 
Pur-Sin.  Larsam  was  sacred  to  the  sun-god  Shamash ;  Uruk 
to  the  goddess  Ishtar;  Nippur  to  En-lil,  father  of  the  gods, 
and  so  on.  Each  city  believed  that  its  god — Bel  or  Lord — 
was  the  greatest  of  all  gods,  and  often  its  inhabitants  were 
inspired  to  go  out  to  conquer  other  cities  and  territories  in 
order  to  extend  the  prestige  of  the  local  deity.  Probably  at 
the  same  time  the  people  were  stimulated  to  fight  because  cer- 
tain cities  had  grown  up  in  the  very  heart  of  the  fertile  valley, 
while  others  had  been  obliged  to  locate  in  poorer  sections. 
Naturally  these  last  looked  with  envious  eyes  upon  the  richer 
soil  of  their  neighbors,  and  desired  to  win  it  for  themselves. 
Each  city  watched  for  the  first  sign  of  weakness  in  her  sister 
cities,  and  when  it  appeared,  tried  at  once  to  incorporate  them 
into  her  own  domains. 

The  political  history  of  the  Euphrates  valley  before  the 


228  THE  world's  progress. 

dominance  of  Babylon  is  the  history  of  these  cities  as  they 
grew  into  httle  states.  Some  grew  strong;  others  weakened 
and  became  tributary  to  the  more  vigorous  few. 

En-shag-kush-ana,  "  Lord  of  Kengiu,"  was  the  name  of 
the  first  king  to  appear  in  the  Babylonian  records.  Erech 
was  probably  his  capital,  and  Nippur  the  religious  center  of 
his  little  kingdom.  We  have  already  connected  Nippur  with 
the  excavations  made  by  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  The 
ruins  there  unearthed  have  enabled  scholars  to  understand  in 
the  main  sacred  cities  of  Babylonia.  En-shag-kush-ana  was 
priest  as  well  as  king.  Although  his  race  was  not  mentioned, 
he  was  probably  a  Chaldean,  like  the  people  over  whom  he 
ruled. 

A  little  to  the  north,  a  Semitic  kingdom  with  the  city  Kish 
as  its  head,  was  growing  rapidly  in  power,  and  threatened 
to  absorb  even  Erech  itself.  On  this  account,  Chaldeans 
attacked  it  and  gained  the  victory,  whereupon  their  god, 
En-lil  of  Nippur  was  celebrated  in  festival  and  his  temple 
received  numerous  trophies  of  the  triumph,  since  he  had 
enabled  those  of  the  south  to  overcome  the  cruder  Semitic 
city. 

Their  defeat  only  led  the  Semitic  kingdom  of  Kish  to 
strengthen  its  forces,  and  about  4000  b.  c,  under  leadership 
of  Lugalzaggisi,  the  vigor  of  the  new  race  overcame  the  nearly 
expended  force  of  the  Chaldeans.  This  conquering  Semitic 
king  set  forth  his  position  thus :  "  Lugalzaggisi,  king  of 
Erech,  king  of  the  world,  priest  of  Ana,  hero  of  Nidaba,  son 
of  Ukush,  he  who  is  looked  upon  favorably  by  the  faithful 
eye  of  En-lil. 

"  When  En-lil,  Lord  of  the  lands,  invested  Lugalzaggisi 
with  the  kingdom  of  the  world,  and  granted  him  success 
before  the  world,  when  he  filled  the  land  with  his  power,  and 
subdued  the  country  from  the  rise  of  the  sun  to  the  setting 
sun — at  that  time  he  straightened  his  path  from  the  lower 
sea  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  to  the  upper  sea,  and  granted 
him  the  dominion  of  everything  from  the  rising  sun  to  the 
setting  of  the  sun,  and  caused  the  countries  to  dwell  in 
peace."  * 

For  some  generations  the  Semites  now  held  the  valley 
and  the  Chaldeans  are  lost  sight  of   in   surviving  records. 

» Hilprecht :  Old  Babylonian  Inscriptions. 


STORY   OF   BABYLONIA   AND   ASSYRIA,  229 

Then  a  southern  kingdom,  Shirpurla,  with  Sunglr  its  chief 
city,  became  strong  enough  to  throw  off  Semitic  rule.  This 
victory  of  the  Chaldeans  w^as  widely  celebrated  in  the  annals 
of  the  waning  race.  Not  only  did  they  now  gain  the  upper 
hand  of  all  the  cities  in  the  valley,  but  they  pushed  into  Elam, 
a  kingdom  to  the  east  and  dominated  both  it  an^  its  tributary 
lands. 

WTiile  comparisons  in  history  may  sometimes  be  mis- 
leading, they  often  aid  the  student  to  better  understand  cer- 
tain conditions.  There  is  some  similarity  between  these  two 
races  in  this  valley  contending  for  supremacy — the  stronger 
being  sometimes  held  in  check,  the  weaker  gradually  losing 
ground — in  certain  aspects,  it  calls  to  mind  the  period  in 
English  history  when  Saxons,  Jutes  and  Angles  struggled  for 
leadership.  The  Saxons  had  developed  the  higher  civiliza- 
tion; the  Danes  were  the  more  vigorous  and  aggressive. 
Sometimes  the  Saxons  would  be  able  to  set  up  their  king, 
again  the  Danes  would  enthrone  one  of  their  number.  Now 
the  waning  light  of  Saxon  power  would  seem  to  be  well-nigh 
spent,  when  suddenly  it  would  burst  out  again  with  a  flame 
that  would  illumine  all  England,  only  again  to  be  eclipsed  by 
the  fresh  strength  of  the  other  nation.  Not  to  push  the  com- 
parison further,  either  country  offers  a  fair  example  of  the 
usual  course  events  take  whenever  two  races,  somewhat  equal 
in  strength,  seek  to  gain  the  upper  hand  in  a  given  territory. 

A  northern  city,  hitherto  unmentioned,  was  to  give  the 
palm  once  more  to  the  Semitic.  Agade,  the  home-city  of 
Shargani-shar-ali,  or  Sargon  I. 

^Many  legends  cluster  around  this  king,  an  early  Semitic 
hero.  Since  our  knowledge  of  him  comes  mainly  through 
legendary  sources,  it  is  difficult  to  separate  the  grain  from  the 
chaff.  A  tradition  which  in  the  course  of  history  has  been 
related  many  times  of  men  in  many  lands,  was  told  first  of 
this  Semitic  king. 

"  Sargon,  the  powerful  king,  King  of  Agade,  am  I. 

"  My  mother  w'as  of  low  degree,  my  father  I  did  not  know. 

"  The  brother  of  my  father  dwelt  in  the  mountain. 

"  My  city  was  Azupirani,  situated  on  the  banks  of  the 
Euphrates. 

"  (My)  humble  mother  conceived  me ;  in  secret  she  brought 
me  forth. 


230  THE)   WORLD'S   PROGREISS. 

"  She  placed  me  in  a  bask-boat  of  rushes ;  with  pitch  she 
closed  my  door. 

,   "  She  gave  me  over  to  the  river,  which  did  not  (rise)  over 
me. 

"  The  river  bore  me  along ;  to  Akki,  the  irrigator,  it  car- 
ried me. 

"  Akki,  the  irrigator,     .     .     .     brought  me  to  land. 

"  Akki,  the  irrigator,  reared  me  as  his  own  son. 

"  Akki,  the  irrigator,  appointed  me  his  gardener. 

"  While  I  was  gardener,  Ishtar  looked  on  me  with  love. 


"  Four  years  I  ruled  the  kingdom."' 

Sargon  I.  and  his  son,  Naram  Sin,  had  great  capacity  for 
organization.  They  were  prolific  builders,  and  bricks  have 
been  found  bearing  their  names  and  titles.  The  material  for 
their  temples  they  brought  some  distance — the  famous  cedars 
of  Lebanon  forming  the  beams.  Sargon  was  called  "  Lord 
of  Nippur,  Shirpurla,  Kish,  Babylon  and  Uruk.  Naram  Sin 
extended  his  sway  to  the  Mediterranean  on  the  west,  east  into 
Elam,  and  south  into  Arabia  and  the  isles  of  the  Persian  Gulf. 
He  took  for  the  first  time  the  title :  "  King  of  the  Four  World- 
Regions.  His  vast  kingdom  thus  built  up  disappeared,  how- 
ever, as  quickly  as  it  came  into  being,  and  after  some  changes, 
Ur  became  the  capital  center.  Three  thousand  eight  hundred 
B.  c.  has  been  accepted  as  the  date  of  Sargon's  reign  and  this 
is  the  first  definite  date  in  Babylonian  history. 

The  kings  of  the  Ur  dynasty  erected  several  temples,  and 
because  Ur  was  easy  of  access,  they  imported  many  of  their 
building  materials.  Dolerite  was  brought  from  Arabia,  cedar 
from  Syria,  gold  and  precious  stones  from  the  east.  This 
town  was  sacred  to  Sin,  the  moon-god,  and  several  hymns 
praising  this  deity  have  been  found. 

Isin,  Erech,  and  other  cities  strove  now  for  leadership,  and 
internal  dissensions  offered  opportunity  for  the  Elamites  on 
the  east,  now  advancing  on  a  wave  of  prosperity,  to  invade 
the  land.  It  is  known  that  they  advanced  as  far  as  Erech, 
and  carried  off  a  statue  of  the  goddess  Nana.  They  set  up 
their  own  king,  whose  line  continued  on  the  throne  for  some 
time.    One  of  these  invading  kings  called  himself :  "  exalter  of 

3  Trans,  quoted  by  Goodspeed :  Hist,  of  the  Bab.  and  Assy.,  p.  62. 


STORY   OF   BABYLONIA   AND   ASSYRIA.  23I 

Ur,  king  of  Larsa,  king  of  Sumer  and  Accad."  Under  Elam- 
ite  administration,  temples  were  built  and  the  religious  and 
commercial  centers  continued  to  grow. 

Of  this  whole  period  Maspero  has  said :  "  We  have  here 
the  dust  of  history  rather  than  history  itself;  here  an  isolated 
individual  makes  his  appearance  in  the  record  of  his  name, 
to  vanish  when  we  attempt  to  lay  hold  of  him ;  there  the  stem 
of  a  dynasty  which  breaks  abruptly  off,  pompous  preambles, 
devout  formulas,  dedications  of  objects  of  buildings,  here  or 
there  the  account  of  some  battle,  or  the  indication  of  some 
foreign  country  with  which  relations  of  friendship  or  com- 
merce were  maintained — these  are  the  scanty  materials  of 
which  to  construct  a  narrative." 

To  summarize  the  period  as  a  whole,  we  may  note  that 
thus  far  no  united  kingdom  had  been  evolved.  To  weld  that 
together  was  the  work  of  the  next  period.  This  was,  on  the 
other  hand,  an  age  of  city-states,  each  one  contesting  for 
leadership.  While  the  struggle  began  with  the  mere  hope  of 
annexing  cities  in  the  valley,  it  expanded  to  include  outlying 
lands  as  well.  The  assimilation  of  the  two  races  was,  generally 
speaking,  effected,  and  henceforth  the  Chaldeans  disappear  as 
a  distinct  element  of  the  country,  having  been  absorbed  polit- 
ically by  the  Semites. 

A  Part  op  a  Hymn  to  the  Moon-God.^ 
(Composed  in  the  city  of  Ur  before  the  age  of  Abraham.) 
Father,  long-suffering  and  full  of  forgiveness, 
Whose  hands  uphold  the  life  of  all  mankind ! 
First  born,  omnipotent,  whose  heart  is  immensity. 
There  is  none  who  may  fathom  it! 

In  heaven,  who  is  supreme? 
Thou  alone.  Thou  art  supreme. 
On  earth,  who  is  supreme? 
Thou  alone.  Thou  art  supreme. 

As  for  Thee,  Thy  will  is  made  known  in  heaven, 
And  the  angels  bow  their  faces. 
As  for  Thee,  Thy  will  is  made  known  upon  earth, 
And  the  spirits  kiss  the  ground. 


•Translated  bySayce. 


232  THS  WORI^d'S  progress. 


CHAPTER  V. 
Dominance  of  Babyi^on,  2100-1100  b.c. 

In  early  times  Babylon  had  not  been  a  city  of  sufficient 
size  to  demand  royal  attention.  No  king  had  thought  it  of 
enough  importance  to  include  with  his  enumerated  possessions, 
although  in  all  probability,  it  was  founded  as  early  as  4000 
B.C. — perhaps  earlier  still.  Sumu-abi  was  its  first  king,  but 
of  him  and  his  immediate  successors,  we  know  little.  The 
sixth  king  was  destined  to  bring  greatness  to  his  city  and  to 
the  whole  country — for  it  was  he  who  united  the  many  states 
of  Babylonia  into  one  strong  kingdom  and  drove  the  usurping 
Elamites  from  the  throne. 

"Hammurabi,  sixth  king  of  Babylon,  ruled  in  the  twenty- 
first  century  B.C.  His  reign  and  the  reigns  of  his  family  were 
regarded  by  the  Babylonians  as  their  "Golden  Age."  Down 
to  the  last  days  of  Babylon,  Babylonian  kings  emulated  his  ex- 
ample, modelling  even  their  inscriptions  after  his. 

How  Hammurabi  freed  the  land  from  Elamite  rule  is  not 
known,  but  his  name  was  soon  established  as  an  able  soldier. 
He  assumed  the  titles:  King  of  Sumer  and  Accad,  King  of 
the  Four-Quarters  of  the  World,  King  of  Babylon.  Having 
annexed  all  the  little  city-states  to  his  original  kingdom  of 
Babylon,  the  capital  city  gave  its  name  to  the  whole  country. 
To  make  this  union  lasting,  Hammurabi  himself  appointed 
officers  of  administration  for  each  political  division  of  the 
kingdom,  and  so  made  the  entire  system  dependent  upon  the 
government  at  the  capital.  The  pre-eminence  now  given  the 
capital  turned  the  tide  of  commerce  and  traffic  from  other 
places  and  made  Babylon  the  great  center,  not  only  for  matters 
of  government,  but  for  industrial  and  social  life  as  well. 

Hammurabi  was  not  only  a  distinguished  warrior,  but  a 
statesman.  When  he  had  made  secure  his  recently  united  king- 
dom, he  turned  to  internal  improvements.  A  post-envoy  sys- 
tem for  royal  messages  was  established.  This  tended  to  make 
the  roads  and  highways  between  different  parts  of  the  coun- 
try   safe.    He    established    royal    granaries    in    the    valley 


STORY  Olf  BABYI.ONIA  AND  ASSYRIA.  233 

of  the  Euphrates — as  we  have  found  them  maintained 
in  the  valley  of  the  Nile — to  store  grain  for  use  in  time 
of  famine. 

As  each  succeeding  city  was  exalted  to  leadership  in 
Babylonia,  we  have  found  that  the  patron  deity  of  that  com- 
munity rose  to  highest  place  in  the  pantheon.  Originally, 
Marduk  was  accorded  a  minor  position  in  the  category  of 
gods.  By  enabling  Babylon  to  gain  supremacy  over  all  other 
cities,  he  had  now  proven  himself  greatest  of  all  gods ;  so  while 
Nippur  and  other  religious  centers,  long  established,  retained 
their  deities  and  their  cults,  there  came  forward  a  large  priest- 
hood devoted  to  the  worship  of  Marduk.  These  priests,  cen- 
tered as  they  were  around  Babylon,  probably  had  much  to  do 
with  that  city's  rapid  progress  in  becoming  the  center  of  cul- 
ture, art  and  literary  effort.  Long  years  after,  when  the  kings 
of  warlike  Assyria  had  added  Babylonia  to  their  num.erous 
possessions,  they  turned  to  the  archives  of  this  city  for  its 
literary  productions  and  one  of  the  most  productive  periods 
was  the  reign  of    Hammurabi. 

Perhaps  the  most  stupendous  undertaking  of  this  king  was 
the  construction  of  a  vast  canal  which  reclaimed  a  large  tract 
of  land,  long  unproductive.  An  inscription  left  by  him  has 
been  found,  and  sets  forth  his  effort  in  this  fashion: 

"  Hammurabi,  the  powerful  king,  king  of  Babylonia, 
.  .  when  Anu  and  Bel  gave  unto  me  to  rule  the  land 
of  Sumer  and  Accad,  and  with  their  scepter  filled  my  hands, 
I  dug  the  canal  Hammurabi,  the  Blessing-of-Men,  which 
bringeth  the  water  of  the  overflow  into  the  land  of  Sumer  and 
Accad.  Its  banks  upon  both  sides  I  made  arable  land;  much 
seed  I  scattered  upon  it.  Lasting  water  I  provided  for  the 
land  of  Sumer  and  Accad.  The  land  of  Sumer  and  Accad,  its 
separated  peoples  I  united,  with  blessings  and  abundance  I 
endowed  them,  in  peaceful  dwellings  I  made  them  to  live."* 

He  was  a  tireless  builder,  spending  much  care  in  repairing 
old  temples  and  constructing  new  ones.  Indeed  King  Ham- 
murabi stands  forth,  after  four  thousand  years  have  passed, 
as  a  ruler  of  exceptional  executive  ability.  Prosperity  long 
attended  his  people  because  of  the  personal  supervision  he 
gave  to  all  branches  of  the  administration. 

>  Quoted  in  Rogers :  Hist,  of  Baby,  and  Assy.,  391. 


234  THE  world's  progress. 

Among  the  lasting  benefits  assured  his  subjects  was  means 
of  getting  legal  redress.  A  court  of  appeals  was  instituted 
at  Babylon  to  which  any  citizen  might  come  to  state  his  wrongs. 
He  codified  the  laws  of  the  land  in  282  laws  and  inscribed  them 
on  monoliths,  one  of  which  was  found  ten  years  ago  in  Susa, 
whither  it  had  been  carried  by  the  Elamites  about  1100  B.C. 
In  the  prologue  to  the  Code  he  states,  "When  Marduk  sent  me 
to  rule  the  people  ...  I  established  law  and  justice  in 
the  land  and  promoted  the  welfare  of  the  people." 

Long  after  his  death  his  son  and  successors  reaped  the 
benefits  of  Hammurabi's  splendid  rule,  and  the  memory  of 
his  strength  and  capacity  held  the  country  in  check  as  long 
as  his  house  endured.  Probably  for  some  time  before  the 
close  of  this  prosperous  era,  which  came  to  an  end  cir.  1700  B.C., 
mountaineers  threatened  the  eastern  borders,  and  the  death  of 
the  last  king  of  the  dynasty  was  the  occasion  for  an  invasion 
of  the  Kassites,  a  people  who  emerged  from  Elam-Media. 
They  seem  to  have  been  one  of  the  many  bands  of  moun- 
taineers who  gained  a  livelihood  from  the  products  of 
the  mountainous  regions  and  by  frequent  plundering  raids 
directed  against  those  living  on  either  side  of  their  strongholds. 
They  well  knew  that  Babylon's  long  devotion  to  the  arts  of 
peace  had  weakened  her  military  strength,  and  regarded  the 
time  as  favorable  for  winning  the  fertile  valleys  for  themselves. 
At  all  events,  they  placed  their  king  upon  the  throne.  The  in- 
habitants of  southern  Babylonia  were  never  possessed  of  strong 
patrotism.  So  long  as  the  land  was  allowed  to  rest  in  peace  and 
the  taxes  were  not  increased,  there  seems  to  have  been  no  especial 
interest  on  the  part  of  the  people  generally  as  to  who  wore  the 
crown.  The  material  development  of  the  country  did  not  suffer 
long  on  this  occasion,  and  for  nearly  600  years  the  Kassite  dy- 
nasty ruled  in  Babylon.  They  rapidly  took  on  the  culture  of 
their  newly  acquired  state,  built  temples  and  directed  their  at- 
tention to  the  prosperity  of  the  land.  As  time  went  on,  they 
wellnigh  ceased  to  be  regarded  as  usurpers.  One  of  their  kings 
set  forth  his  titles  thus :  "I  am  Agumkakrime,  the  son  of  Tash- 
shigiirumash ;  the  illustrious  descendant  of  god  Shuqamuna ; 
called  by  Anu  and  Bel,  Ea  and  Marduk,  Sin  and  Shamash;  the 
powerful  hero  of  Ishtar,  the  warrior  among  the  gods. 

"I  am  a  king  of  wisdom  and  prudence ;  a  king  who  grants 


STORY  OF  BABYLONIA  AND  ASSYRIA.  235 

hearing  and  pardon ;  the  son  of  Tashshigurumash ;  the  descend- 
ant of  Abiru  .  .  .  the  crafty  warrior ;  the  first  son  of  the 
great  Agum ;  an  illustrious,  royal  scion  who  holds  the  reins  of 
the  nation  (and  is)  a  mighty  shepherd.     ,     .     . 

"I  am  king  of  the  country  of  Kashshu  and  of  the  Akka- 
dians; king  of  the  wide  country  of  Babylon,  who  settles  the 
numerous  people  in  Ashnunak ;  the  King  of  Padan  and  Alman ; 
the  king  of  Gutium,  a  foolish  nation;  (a  king)  who  makes  obe- 
dient to  him  the  four  regions,  and  a  favorite  of  the  great  gods." 

This  enumeration  of  tributary  lands  shows  these  kings  to 
have  been  good  warriors. 

For  a  hundred  years  before  the  end  of  the  Kassite  dynasty, 
the  kingdom  of  Assyria,  founded  before  3000  b.c.  in  all  prob- 
ability, was  growing  in  strength  and  importance.  When  the 
Babylonians  were  unable  to  hold  out  against  invading  kings, 
naturally  the  Assyrians  felt  in  no  way  bound  to  render  the 
tribute  they  had  paid  Babylonia  to  usurping  foreigners,  and 
took  advantage  of  the  occasion  to  assert  their  sovereignty. 

As  has  been  previously  noted,  the  Assyrians  were  of  pure 
Semitic  stock,  and,  as  their  own  artists  represent  them,  appar- 
ently had  not  intermarried  with  the  Chaldeans,  as  the  Semites 
farther  south  had  done.  They  were  warlike  in  disposition,  and 
knew  neither  the  luxuries  of  the  southern  state  nor  its  enervat- 
ing climate.  They  had  even  become  powerful  enough  to  make 
treaties  with  the  rulers  of  Babylon  regarding  disputed  lands, 
and  this  fact  in  itself  was  significant.  For  some  considerable 
period  after  the  invasion  of  the  Kassites,  Assyria  was  concerned 
with  her  own  affairs,  but  the  time  was  coming  when  she  would 
make  her  power  felt  in  the  mother  country. 

Generally  speaking,  the  Kassite  rule  was  an  age  of  peace. 
Among  the  Tell  el  Amama  letters,  unearthed  upon  the  ancient 
site  of  the  "  Horizon  of  the  Sun's  Disk,"  correspondence  has 
been  found  between  some  of  these  Asiatic  rulers  and  the  kings 
of  Egypt.  The  letters  open  with  the  preliminaries  customary  in 
oriental  correspondence :  "  To  Kadashman-Bel.  kmg  of  Kar- 
dunyash,  my  brother;  thus  saith  Amenophis,  the  great  king, 
the  king  of  Egj'^pt,  thy  brother:  with  me  it  is  well.  May  it  be 
well  with  thee,  with  thy  house,  with  thy  wives,  with  thy  children, 
with  thy  nobles,  with  thy  horses  and  with  thy  chariots,  and 
with  thy  land  may  it  be  well;  with  me  may  it  be  well,  with 


236  THE  world's  progress. 

my  house  ^ith  my  wives,  with  my  children,  with  my  nobles, 
with  my  horses,  with  my  chariots,  with  my  troops,  and  with 
my  land,  may  it  be  very  well."  Regarding  this  particular  letter 
and  others  of  the  same  period,  Rogers  says :  "  No  historical 
material  of  great  moment  is  offered  in  these  letters.  They 
reveal  a  period  of  relative  peace  and  prosperity,  and  deal,  in 
considerable  measure,  with  the  little  courtesies  and  amenities  of 
life.  It  is,  for  example,  curious  to  find  the  Babylonian  king 
reproving  the  king  of  Egypt  for  not  having  sent  an  ambassador 
to  inquire  for  him  when  he  was  ill.  When  kings  had  time  for 
such  courtesies,  and  could  only  excuse  themselves  for  failing 
to  observe  them  on  the  ground  of  their  ignorance  of  the  illness, 
and  the  great  distance  to  be  covered  on  the  journey,  there  must 
have  been  freedom  from  war  and  from  all  distress  at  home  and 
abroad."* 

It  was  not  Jestined  to  long  continue  peaceful,  however. 
By  1285  B.C.  the  Assyrian  king  felt  himself  powerful  enough 
to  invade  Babylonia.  Penetrating  even  to  the  capital  itself, 
he  carried  away  the  statue  of  the  god  Marduk — a  great  indig- 
nity. He  allowed  the  Babylonia  king  to  become  his  vassal. 
This  state  of  affairs  continued  for  seven  years,  whereupon  the 
Babylonians  succeeded  in  driving  the  Assyrians  north  again, 
taking  from  them  some  of  the  territory  they  had  seized.  When 
next  the  Assyrians  threatened,  the  Semites  instituted  a  revolu- 
tion, forced  the  Kassites  from  the  throne,  and  established  the 
dynasty  of  Isin. 

Now  began  the  struggle  for  supremacy  in  the  valley,  waged 
by  two  great  nations.  The  strength  of  Babylonia  was  waning, 
but  their  king,  Nebuchadnezzar  I.,  held  the  kingdom  together 
with  a  strong  hand.  He  only  delayed  the  inevitable.  The 
future  belonged  to  the  JTiore  vigorous  kingdom  to  the  north, 
and  to  her  power  Babylonia  soon  fell  subservient. 

To  follow  the  main  thread  of  activity  in  the  Euphrates 
valley,  we  must  now  turn  to  Assyria,  while  the  life  so  charac- 
teristic of  Babylon  continued  until  it  could  be  said  :  "  No  capital 
in  the  world  has  ever  been  the  center  of  so  much  power,  wealth, 
and  culture  for  so  vast  a  period  of  time." 

"Rogers :  Hist,  of  Baby,  and  Assy.,  Vol  I.,  p,  418. 


WixGED  Lion. 


STORY   OF   BABYLONIA   AND   ASSYRIA.  237 


CHAPTER  VI. 
Beginnings  of  the  Assyrian  Empire. 

The  beginnings  of  the  Assyrian  state  are  lost  in  obscurity. 
Nineveh  was  possibly  founded  before  3000  b.  c,  but  like 
Babylon,  its  origin  is  not  known.  Asshur  was  long  the  im- 
portant city  of  the  country,  overshadowing  the  later  capital. 

About  1490  B.  c.  Thutmose  III.  pushed  into  Asia  and 
roused  the  western  portion  of  that  continent  with  his  conquests. 
Assyria,  like  many  other  weak  states,  hastened  to  send  gifts 
to  the  conquering  pharaoh.  These  signified  submission,  and 
Thothmes  gave  no  further  evidences  of  his  military  power. 
The  next  mention  of  Assyria  occurs  when  the  state  had  become 
sufficiently  important  to  enter  into  a  treaty  with  the  Kassite 
king  of  Babylonia,  regarding  disputed  territories.  As  we  have 
already  noted,  Assyria,  long  subservient  to  the  older  kingdom, 
felt  in  no  way  bound  to  submit  to  the  foreign  rule  of  Kassite 
princes,  and  had  already  established  her  own  independence, 
which  was  acknowledged  by  the  Babylonian  king  when  he 
negotiated  a  treaty  with  her.  Later,  the  daughter  of  an  As- 
syrian king  was  married  to  the  king  of  Babylonia.  Their  son 
came  to  the  throne  at  an  early  age,  and  the  Babylonians,  see- 
ing an  intrigue  to  allow  Assyrian  influences  to  dominate  their 
land,  made  way  with  the  boy-king,  substituting  another  in  his 
place.  Thereupon  the  Assyrian  ruler,  grandfather  of  the 
murdered  prince,  invaded  Babylonia,  killed  the  monarch  popu- 
larly crowned,  and  placed  his  own  candidate  upon  the  throne. 
The  result  of  this  Assyrian  interference  was  not  immediately 
important,  but  it  was  the  first  of  a  long  series  of  difficulties 
between  the  two  countries,  which  ended  ultimately  in  the  recog- 
nition of  the  Assyrian  king  as  ruler  of  Babylonia  as  well. 

About  1290  B.  c,  troubles  having  again  arisen,  the  northern 
king  came  once  more  to  the  city  of  Babylon,  this  time  carrying 
away  the  statue  of  tlie  god  Marduk,  as  we  have  already  seen. 
He  left  Assyrian  officials  in  the  land  as  his  representatives. 
Seven  years  later,  these  were  driven  out  by  a  popular  uprising 
of  the  Babylonians,  who  seized  certain  outlying  districts  which 

1—17 


^38  THE  world's  progress. 

had  recently  been  appropriated  by  the  Assyrians.  When  the 
Kassite  princes  were  finally  dethroned,  Nebuchadnezzar  I.,  of 
the  dynasty  of  Isin,  was  strong  enough  to  hold  the  Babylonian 
state  intact  against  the  power  which  constantly  threatened  at 
the  north. 

To  this  point  we  had  come  in  the  preceding  chapter,  and 
this  recast  of  the  situation  is  made  that  we  may  have  its  essen- 
tial features  clearly  in  mind. 

Coming  now  to  the  reign  of  Tiglath-Pileser  I.,  1 120  B.C.,  we 
meet  one  of  the  great  warriors  of  antiquity,  and  with  his  admin- 
istration, a  new  era  opened  for  Assyria.  The  first  five  years  of  his 
reign  were  occupied  with  campaigns  to  the  north,  east,  and 
west,  in  which  directions  tribes  had  been  menacing  the  borders 
of  his  kingdom.  In  these  campaigns  we  see  the  beginnings 
of  those  cruel,  relentless  punishments,  amounting  often  to  mere 
savagery, — which  fill  the  pages  of  Assyrian  history.  These 
were  meted  out  to  all  who  failed  to  submit  to  Assyrian  arms. 
An  inscription  commemorating  the  victories  of  the  warrior 
says :  "  With  their  corpses  I  strewed  the  mountain  passes  and 
the  heights.  I  took  away  their  property,  a  countless  booty. 
Six  thousand  warriors,  the  remnant  of  their  army,  who  had 
fled  before  my  arms,  embraced  my  feet.  I  carried  them  away 
and  counted  them  among  the  inhabitants  of  my  own  land." 
And  again :  "  In  those  days,  .  .  .  Asshur,  the  Lord,  sent 
me,  who  knows  no  victor  in  war,  no  rival  in  battle,  whose  rule 
is  righteous  over  the  four  quarters  of  the  world,  towards  dis- 
tant kingdoms  on  the  shores  of  the  Upper  Sea,  which  knew 
not  submission,  and  I  went  forth.  Across  impracticable  heights 
and  through  precipitous  defiles  the  inside  of  which  no  king 
had  beheld  before,  I  passed.  Through  sixteen  mountain  ridges 
I  marched  in  my  chariot  where  the  ground  was  good ;  where  it 
was  inaccessible,  I  cleared  away  with  axes,  and  bridges  for 
the  passage  of  my  troops  I  constructed  excellently  well.  I 
crossed  the  Euphrates.  .  .  .  Twenty-three  kings  of  the 
land  of  Nairi,  assembled  their  chariots  and  troops  in  the 
midst  of  their  countries  and  came  forth  to  do  battle  against 
me.  By  the  impetuous  onslaught  of  my  mighty  arms  I  con- 
quered them.  I  destroyed  their  numerous  armies  like  Raman's 
thundershower ;  with  the  corpses  of  their  warriors  I  strewed 
the  mountain  heights  and  the  enclosures  of  their  cities  as  with 


STORY   OF   BABYLONIA   AND  ASSYRIA.  239 

straw.  Their  120  chariots  I  destroyed  in  the  battle;  sixty  kings 
of  the  lands  of  Nairi,  with  those  who  had  come  to  their  assist- 
ance, I  pursued  to  the  Upper  Sea.  Their  great  cities  I  took, 
their  spoils,  their  possessions  I  carried  off,  their  towns  I  burned 
with  fire,  I  destroyed,  laid  them  waste,  made  heaps  of  them  and 
land  for  the  plough.  Numerous  herds  of  steeds,  colts,  calves, 
and  implements  without  number  I  carried  home.  The  kings 
of  the  lands  of  the  Nairi  my  hand  captured  alive,  all  of  them. 
To  these  same  kings  I  granted  favor.  Captive  and  bound,  I 
released  them  before  Shamash,  my  lord,  and  made  them  swear 
allegiance  forever.  Their  children,  the  offspring  of  their 
royalty,  I  took  as  hostages.  I  imposed  on  them  a  tribute  of 
1,200  steeds  and  2,000  bulls  and  dismissed  them  to  their  re- 
spective countries.  .  .  .  The  vast  lands  of  Nairi  I  took  in 
all  their  extent,  and  all  their  kings  I  brought  low  to  my  feet." 

When  five  years,  filled  with  similar  campaigns,  had  passed, 
a  large  number  of  tribes  paid  tribute  to  Assyria.  Before  this 
period,  Calab  had  served  as  capital.  Tiglath-Pileser  now  re- 
built Asshur.  Rare  trees  were  brought  from  conquered  lands, 
to  beautify  the  town.  Temples  were  restored,  to  the  honor 
of  the  gods.  Of  the  restoration  of  the  temple  of  Ana  and 
Adad,  the  king  caused  to  be  inscribed :  "  I  built  it  from  founda- 
tion to  roof  larger  and  grander  than  before,  and  erected  also 
two  great  towers,  fitting  ornaments  of  their  great  divinities. 
The  splendid  temple,  a  brilliant  and  magnificent  dwelling,  the 
habitation  of  their  joys,  the  house  for  their  delight,  shining  as 
bright  as  the  stars  on  heaven's  firmament  and  richly  decorated 
with  ornaments  through  the  skill  of  my  artists,  I  planned, 
devised,  and  thought  out,  built  and  completed.  I  made  its 
interior  brilliant  like  the  dome  of  the  heavens;  decorated  its 
walls  like  the  splendor  of  the  rising  stars,  and  make  it  grand 
with  resplendent  brilliancy.  I  reared  its  temple  towers  to 
heaven,  and  completed  its  roof  with  burned  brick;  located 
therein  the  upper  terrace  containing  the  chamber  of  their  great 
divinities;  and  led  into  the  interior  Anu  and  Adad,  the  great 
gods,  and  made  them  to  dwell  in  their  lofty  house,  thus  glad- 
dening the  heart  of  their  great  divinities.'" 

The  memory  of  this  stern  warrior  lived  long  after  his  death, 
holding  tribes  in  subjection  and  enabling,  his  successors  to  rule 

>  Quoted  in  Goodspeed,  p.  171. 


240  THE  world's   progress. 

in  comparative  peace.  The  greatness  of  the  future  kingdom 
has  been  attributed  in  no  small  measure  to  the  foundations  laid 
by  Tiglath-Pileser  I. 

A  period  of  reaction  followed.  Tribute,  which  had  been 
paid  only  for  fear  of  a  strong,  well  disciplined  army,  was  no 
longer  forthcoming.  Babylonia  and  Assyria  have  left  so 
few  records  for  these  years  that  they  are  almost  sure  to  have 
been  years  of  inaction.  On  the  alluvial  bottoms  of  Babylonia,  a 
new  dynasty  arose,  known  as  the  dynasty  of  the  Sea  Lands. 
Both  the  rulers  and  the  subjects  they  governed  were  com- 
paratively newcomers,  who  easily  gained  the  upper  hand  in  the 
decadent  state,  especially  as  no  interference  came  from 
Assyria, 

While  the  inertia  of  Babylonia  allowed  the  latest  comer  to 
rule,  so  the  inaction  of  Assyria  allowed  countries  on  the  west — 
Syria  and  Palestine — to  gain  strength.  On  the  north,  the 
Armenians,  a  nation  of  traders,  extended  their  territories  and 
their  commercial  affairs. 

In  950  B.  c.  Tiglath-Pileser  II.  became  king.  From  this 
time  forward  records  become  more  numerous,  and  we  are  able 
to  trace  the  stages  of  development  with  greater  accuracy. 
Assyria  once  more  wakened  to  her  possibilities,  while  Baby- 
lonia continued  in  her  helpless,  prostrate  condition.  Nothing 
of  note  is  chronicled  until  Asshur-natsirpal  III.  became  king-  in 
885  B.  c.  He  promptly  marched  against  the  earlier  conquered 
tribes  on  the  north  who  no  longer  paid  their  tribute.  He 
slaughtered  a  goodly  number  at  the  start,  and  this  report  spread 
like  wildfire  among  the  tribes,  who  hastened  to  send  gifts. 
For  some  years  he  continued  to  bring  countries  under  tribute, 
quelling  revolts  with  such  severity  as  only  an  Assyrian  could 
have  directed.  One  inscription  is  sufficient  to  let  us  under- 
stand his  customary  procedure: 

"  I  drew  near  to  the  city  of  Tela.  The  city  was  very 
strong;  three  walls  surrounded  it.  The  inhabitants  trusted 
to  their  strong  walls  and  numerous  soldiers ;  they  did  not  come 
down  or  embrace  my  feet.  With  battle  and  slaughter  I  as- 
saulted and  took  the  city.  Three  thousand  warriors  I  slew 
in  battle.  Their  booty  and  possessions,  cattle,  sheep,  I  car- 
ried away;  many  captives  I  burned  with  fire-  Many  of  their 
soldiers  I  took  alive;  of  some  I  cut  off  hands  and  limbs;  of 


STORY   OF   BABYLONIA   AND   ASSYRIA.  24I 

Others  the  noses,  ears,  and  arms;  of  many  soldiers  I  put  out 
the  eyes.  I  reared  a  column  of  the  living  and  a  column  of 
heads.  I  hung  up  on  high  their  heads  on  trees  in  the  vicinity 
of  their  city.  Their  boys  and  girls  I  burned  up  in  the  flame. 
I  devastated  the  city,  dug  it  up,  in  the  fire  burned  it;  I  anni- 
hilated it."' 

Babylonia  and  nations  on  the  east  united  against  the  re- 
lentless conqueror,  but  in  vain.  They  were  defeated  and  some 
of  their  cities  laid  waste. 

Having  carried  on  campaigns  in  this  fashion  for  some  time, 
Asshur-natsirpal  found  himself  at  the  head  of  a  large  army, 
well  disciplined,  invincible,  inured  to  slaughter  and  devasta- 
tion— a  menace  to  the  state  if  kept  idle,  and  if  disbanded,  re- 
moving at  a  stroke  the  fear  which  prompted  the  payment  of 
tribute. 

Something  should  perhaps  be  said  of  tribute,  which  we 
find  kings  demanding  of  all  subjected  people.  The  habit  of 
compelling  the  payment  of  tribute  was  tolerated  only  in  an 
age  when  might  made  right.  None  of  the  earliest  nations 
gave  anything  in  exchange  for  tribute  exacted.  No  effort 
was  made  to  defend  tributary  tribes  from  the  attacks  of 
other  tribes.  Tribute  was  merely  the  price  paid  by  a  people 
for  the  privilege  of  benig  in  other  respects  left  alone.  A  king 
who  dreamed  of  a  wide  reaching  empire,  tried  to  bring  as  many 
nations  as  possible  under  his  tribute.  The  payment  of  this 
tribute  was  the  formal  acknowledgment  of  the  emperor's 
over-lordship.  Until  the  age  of  Persian  dominance,  no  mon- 
arch was  able  to  do  much  more  than  compel  the  annual  pay- 
ment in  joining  alien  territories  to  his  own.  Assyria  attempted 
on  a  smaller  scale  what  Persia  effected,  but  little  more  than  the 
conception  of  a  great  empire  was  contributed  by  Assyria;  it 
was  given  reality  by  Persian  conquerors. 

Asshur-natsirpal  realized  the  only  course  open  to  him  was 
that  of  conquest,  and  to  that  he  now  turned.  Setting  out 
for  the  west,  his  march  was  a  continual  triumph.  His  reputa- 
tion was  so  well  established,  and  the  strength  of  his  army  so 
well  understood  that  tribes  on  either  side  sent  gifts  as  soon  as 
he  drew  near. 

Reaching  the  EupHrates,  he  was  unable  to  make  any  ade- 

*  Quoted  in  Goodspeed,  p.  197. 


242  THE  WORLD  S   PROGRESS. 

quate  provision  for  the  transportation  of  his  troops.  The 
Assyrians  were  an  inland  people  and  knew  nothing  of  mari- 
time affairs.  Each  soldier  was  expected  to  get  himself  across 
the  stream,  partly  swimming,  partly  buoyed  up  by  inflated 
skins  of  animals. 

Drawing  near  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  he  found  that  com- 
merce occupied  the  people  in  that  region  to  the  exclusion  of 
war.  Indeed,  they  would  pay  heavily  to  avoid  war,  which 
seriously  interfered  with  their  trade.  The  king  of  the  Hittites 
— once  a  nation  of  importance  but  at  this  time  retaining  little  of 
its  former  strength — stated  his  position  very  frankly.  His 
policy  was  direct  and  simple.  He  was  willing  to  pay  down  the 
sum  of  twenty  talents  of  silver,  one  hundred  talents  of  copper, 
two  hundred  and  fifty  talents  of  iron,  along  with  chains  and 
beads  of  gold  and  much  other  treasure,  if  he  were  simply  let 
alone.  .  .  .  National  pride  counted  for  nothing.  The 
primary  desire  was  to  get  the  Assyrians  out  of  the  country  as 
soon  as  possible;  and  well  might  they  pay  a  heavy  tribute  to 
gain  such  a  boon  as  that."' 

It  was  apparent  that  there  would  be  no  particular  oppor- 
tunity for  military  skill  against  people  of  such  convictions  as 
these.  The  Assyrian  army  moved  on  and  at  length  drew  near 
the  green  slopes  of  the  Lebanon,  in  sight  of  the  Mediterranean 
waters,  dotted  over  by  Phoenician  ships,  busily  plying  their 
trade.  While  no  city  was  besieged,  no  blood  shed,  the  effect 
was  marked  upon  the  entire  region.  All  acknowledged  Asshur- 
natsirpal  as  conqueror.  In  some  cases,  Assyrian  officials  were 
stationed  to  keep  the  home  government  in  touch  with  these 
distant  parts;  in  other  places,  Assyrian  colonists  were  induced 
to  settle,  far  from  their  native  homes.  Cities  were  walled  by 
the  labor  of  Assyrian  soldiers,  and  were  temporarily  protected 
by  Assyrian  fortifications.  While  such  demonstrations  had  a 
lasting  effect  on  the  western  states,  the  Assyrian  king,  on  his 
part,  was  deeply  impressed  by  one  thing,  and  this  omened  ill 
for  their  future ;  the  people  of  this  region  cared  more  to  pro- 
tect their  commerce  than  their  country.  They  valued  the  pro- 
tection of  their  wares  above  the  honor  and  independence  of 
their  respective  states.  We  shall  see  that  this  one  fact  as 
understood  by  the  Assyrian  king  developed  a  definite  western 
policy. 

»  Rogers :  Hist,  of  Baby,  and  Assy.,  Vol.  II,  64. 


STORY   OF    BABYLONIA   AND  ASSYRIA.  243 

Unable  to  supply  military  action  for  his  troops,  the  king  set 
them  to  cutting  down  trees — cedar,  cypress,  and  juniper. 
These  were  taken  to  Assyria.  The  army  returned  home  with- 
out approaching  Damascus,  where  opposition  was  certain  to  be 
strong.  Too  much  glory  had  been  won  to  have  it  overshadowed 
by  any  chance  issue. 

While  the  western  conquest  had  been  in  progress,  officers 
at  home  had  been  carrying  out  the  king's  plans  by  rebuilding 
Calah,  and  constructing  a  large  canal.  The  king  now  returned 
to  personally  supervise  the  construction  of  a  royal  palace. 

"  A  palace  for  my  royal  dwelling-place,  for  the  glorious 
seat  of  my  royalty,  I  founded  forever  and  splendidly  planned  it. 
I  surrounded  it  with  a  cornice  of  copper.  Sculptures  of  the 
creatures  of  land  and  sea  carved  in  alabaster,  I  made  and 
placed  them  at  the  doors.  Lofty  doorposts  of  .  .  .  wood 
I  made,  and  sheathed  them  with  copper  and  set  them  up  in 
the  gates.  Thrones  of  costly  woods,  dishes  of  ivory  con- 
taining silver,  gold,  lead,  copper,  and  iron,  the  spoil  of  my 
hand,  taken  from  conquered  lands  I  deposited  therein." 

In  860  B.  c.  Asshur-natsirpal  died,  leaving  the  future  to 
regard  him  as  the  most  ferocious  king  in  all  Assyrian  history; 
yet  he  had  accomplished  more  for  his  country  than  any  of  his 
predecessors,  and  left  it  more  united  and  in  a  more  prosperous 
condition.  His  son,  Shalmaneser  II.,  like  the  father,  found  him- 
self obliged  to  keep  an  army  active,  collecting  tributes  and  mak- 
ing fresh  conquests.  He  repeated  the  westward  march,  and 
met  an  alliance  formed  against  him  at  Damascus.  To  that  city's 
forces  were  joined  those  of  Israel  and  of  Phoenicia.  While 
their  armies  were  defeated,  no  tribute  was  exacted,  and  this 
fact  in  itself  shows  that  the  victory  was  not  complete. 

This  first  coalition  formed  against  Assyria,  made  up  of 
Mediterranean  peoples,  is  important.  Such  a  union  might  have 
effectually  stayed  the  great  military  power  of  the  age  had  not 
jealousies  among  the  states  themselves  hindered  permanent 
union.  By  846  b.  c.  the  alliance  had  been  broken,  and  Jehu  of 
Israel  sent  gifts  to  the  Assyrian  ruler.  This  furnished  him  his 
first  hold  on  the  independence  of  the  Hebrews. 

The  next  hundred  years  saw  a  union  of  Babylonia  and 
Assyria,  and  an  attempt,  on  the  part  of  one  king  at  least,  to 
blot  out  all  differences  between  the  two  peoples  by  showing 


244 


THE  world's   progress. 


among  other  things  that  their  rehgions  were  the  same.  To 
give  weight  to  the  claim,  he  constructed  temples  in  Nineveh, 
after  the  model  of  those  of  Babylon. 

In  the  following  chapter  we  shall  note  the  height  of  As- 
syrian dominance  and  the  proudest  years  of  her  history. 


PL0CK5  AND  CAPTIVE  WOMEN  CARRIED  AWAY. 


STORY  OF   BABYI^ONIA   AND  ASSYRIA.  245 

CHAPTER  VII. 
Assyria — A  Powerfui.  Empire. 

A  dynasty  of  weak  kings  followed  and  seemed  to  be  lead- 
ing Assyria  on  to  ruin,  but  in  746  B.  c.  the  people  rose  up  in 
rebellion,  driving  them  out  and  crowning  a  ruler  selected  by 
themselves.  It  is  supposed  that  the  one  they  chose  had  already 
proven  his  worth  and  capacity  either  at  the  head  of  a  large 
division  of  the  army,  or  possibly  in  the  management  of  some 
Assyrian  province.  In  any  event,  he  was  firmly  established 
at  once  and  spent  no  time  trying  to  inspire  his  subjects  with 
awe.  His  own  name  has  not  been  recorded  but  he  took  the 
crown  name  of  Tiglath-Pileser  III.,  seeking  to  emulate  him 
who  had  borne  it  first.  He  is  the  Pul  of  the  Old  Testament. 

Babylonia  demanded  first  attention.  The  Armenians  had 
established  themselves  in  the  southern  part  of  the  kingdom 
and  threatened  to  crush  out  the  old  life  and  culture  by  their 
rapidly  increasing  numbers. 

Tiglath-Pileser  III.  was  hailed  by  the  native  Babylonians 
as  a  deliverer.  Forcing  the  usurpers  back,  he  divided  the 
former  kingdom  into  four  provinces,  placing  Assyrian  gov- 
ernors over  each.  He  also  brought  many  captives  into  these 
provinces  to  make  their  homes,  hoping  in  this  way  to  weaken 
the  national  spirit  which  tried  every  little  while  to  gain  back 
old-time  freedom  for  the  state. 

The  Medes  on  the  east  required  some  curbing,  but  their 
independence  was  not  destroyed.  These  matters  attended  to, 
Tiglath-Pileser  III,  was  free  to  give  attention  to  the  west. 

The  city  of  Arpad  stood  in  the  way  of  Assyrian  progress 
and  since  it  refused  tribute,  it  was  besieged.  The  plucky  town 
held  out  for  two  long  years,  but  when  finally  taken,  was  laid 
waste  with  great  slaughter.  All  neighboring  tribes  hastened 
to  send  tribute,  and  were  incorporated  into  the  Assyrian 
empire. 

Heretofore  we  have  seen  people  brought  under  tribute  and 
some  faint  efforts  made  to  hold  them.  Now  we  have  reached 
the  imperial  period  of  Assyrian  development  when  the  gov- 


246  THE  world's   progress. 

emment,  established  at  home,  sought  to  increase  its  actual 
possessions  abroad,  and  to  bind  them  to  the  original  kingdom 
with  strong  ties. 

An  alliance  had  been  made  among  the  sea-coast  states,  with 
Judah  at  the  head.  This  had  been  formed,  of  course,  to  stay 
the  western  tide  of  Assyrian  power.  Notwithstanding,  the 
king  of  Samaria  yielded  the  moment  the  Assyrian  army  drew 
near,  paying  the  tribute  with  no  display  of  force.  Judah  alone 
seems  to  have  remained  unyielding  and  undisturbed.  Thirty 
thousand  captives  were  brought  into  these  districts  to  find  new 
homes,  while  many  of  the  natives  were  deported  to  make  room 
for  them. 

Several  methods  were  employed  by  Assyria  to  make  con- 
quests lasting.  If  a  tribe  or  city  acknowledged  the  Assyrian 
king  as  conqueror,  no  recourse  was  made  to  arms;  an  annual 
tribute  was  usually  imposed  and  an  Assyrian  governor  placed 
in  the  territory  to  hold  revolts  in  check  and  to  generally  repre- 
sent the  empire,  of  which  the  province  was  now  a  part.  The 
native  king  was  frequently  allowed  to  rule  over  the  people, 
even  though  his  main  duty  in  some  instances  seems  to  have 
been  to  raise  the  required  tribute.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  a 
tribe  or  city  resisted,  a  war  or  siege  followed.  One  battle 
might  reduce  a  tribe  to  submission;  in  the  case  of  a  city,  all 
supplies  were  shut  off,  and  eventually  the  inhabitants  would  be 
starved  into  surrender,  whereupon,  the  city  was  often  made 
"  land  for  the  plough  "  by  the  exasperated  king,  and  the  people 
subjected  to  all  sorts  of  cruel  punishments. 

When  a  kingdom  was  conquered,  it  was  thought  desirable 
to  destroy  its  old  patriotism  by  removing  all  chances  for  its 
development.  With  that  end  in  view,  some  of  its  citizens 
would  be  sent  out  of  the  country  to  seek  homes  in  other  lands, 
while  those  from  distant  regions  would  be  brought  in  to  take 
their  places.  Naturally  the  newcomers  knew  nothing  of  the 
traditions  of  their  newly  found  country  and  cared  not  at  all 
to  fight  for  them.  In  this  way,  nations  ceased  to  retain  their 
venerated  customs,  but  as  the  kings  often  record :  "  I  made 
them  all  to  speak  one  language  " — and  that  Assyrian.  One 
far-reaching  effect  of  this  policy  was  that  when  a  revolt  did 
break  out  in  some  district,  it  no  longer  spread  like  wildfire  in 
all  directions,  but  the  governor  of  the  province  was  himself 


STORY   OF   BABYI^ONIA   AND   ASSYRIA.  247 

able  to  put  down  any  uprising,  and  the  colonists  recently 
imported,  caring  nothing  for  the  older  inhabitants,  could  be 
depended  upon  to  help  him. 

Tiglath-Pileser  III.  turned  now  to  Gaza,  whose  king  fled 
to  Eg}'pt  there  to  get  aid  in  behalf  of  his  state.  Deserted,  the 
city  soon  surrendered  and  the  Assyrian  king,  having  sent  the 
old  gods  home  to  Assyria,  installed  Assyrian  gods  in  the  tem- 
ples.    Thence  he  marched  to  Palestine. 

He  who  had  held  out  against  Assyria  before  was  dead  and 
a  weak  king  now  ruled  in  Judah.  Had  the  kings  of  Samaria 
and  Damascus  formed  an  alliance  with  Judah,  the  power  of 
Assyria  might  yet  have  been  broken ;  instead  they  united  their 
forces  to  invade  Judah  and  appropriate  the  territory  of  the 
weak  king  for  themselves.  Isaiah,  the  great  statesman  of  the 
Hebrews,  counselled  the  ruler  in  vain.  To  protect  himself 
against  his  aggressive  neighbors  he  appealed  to  Assyria  for 
help.  This  drew  Tiglath-Pileser  III.  to  Samaria  and  Damascus, 
while  Judah,  sending  gifts,  was  not  at  this  time  molested.  The 
Samarians  themselves  rose  up  against  their  king.  Having 
killed  him,  they  asked  the  Assyrian  ruler  to  allow  Hoshea  to 
rule  over  them  as  an  Assyrian  vassal.  This  sifted  the  opposi- 
tion down  to  Damascus,  which  city  prepared  for  a  siege.  Some 
five  hundred  outlying  towns  were  laid  waste  and  their  in- 
habitants sent  into  other  districts.  Not  all  the  army  being 
constantly  required  to  guard  the  besieged  town,  part  of  the 
troops  marched  into  Arabia,  demanding  tribute  and  receiving 
it.  In  732  B.  c.  Damascus  fell  and  became  an  Assyrian  province. 

By  this  time.  Babylonia  was  in  a  state  of  turmoil.  Under 
Assyrian  government  the  people  had  at  first  been  free  to  de- 
velop their  arts  of  peace,  and  literature  had  flourished.  Then 
the  Chaldeans  to  the  south,  established  originally  in  the  region 
around  the  gulf,  known  once  as  Chaldea — tried  again  to  rule 
the  land.  In  726  B.C.  Tiglath-Pileser  III.  marched  into  Baby- 
lonia, where,  taking  the  hands  of  the  god  Marduk,  he  was 
crowned  king  of  Babylonia.  According  to  the  ancient  custom, 
he  who  wore  this  crown  must  return  each  year  and  celebrate 
this  same  ceremony.  Two  years  later  Tiglath-Pileser  having 
again  performed  the  rites,  died  before  the  year  elapsed. 

During  the  short  reign  which  followed  interest  again  re- 
verted to  the  west.    Hoshea  refused  to  pay  tribute  in  725  B.C., 


248  rni,  world's  progre;ss. 

looking  to  Eg)'pt  for  help.  He  was  taken  captive  and  Samaria 
made  ready  for  a  siege.  Strange  to  say,  the  town  held  out 
for  three  years  and  the  king  of  Assyria  died  before  it  was 
taken.  Sargon  II.  at  once  succeeded.  (722-705  b.  c.)  He 
again  was  not  of  royal  blood  and  he  too  chose  a  popular  crown 
name.    . 

Samaria  soon  fell,  and  quite  possibly  neither  the  besieging 
army  or  the  stricken  town  knew  of  any  change  in  rulers. 
Twenty-seven  thousand  two  hundred  and  ninety  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Samaria — the  flower  of  the  land, — were  deported 
to  the  Median  mountains,  while  colonists  were  brought  in  from 
Babylonia  and  other  provinces  to  take  their  places.  This  loss 
it  was  impossible  to  retrieve.  Assyrian  governors  were  set 
over  the  land,  now  merely  an  Assyrian  province. 

In  721  B.  c.  attention  focused  once  more  in  Babylonia, 
where  the  Chaldeans  had  again  usurped  the  crown.  In  the 
battle  Sargon  waged,  the  result  was  so  indecisive  that  neither 
side  gained  much.    The  usurpers  were  simply  checked. 

Suddenly  an  alliance  was  formed  in  the  west,  made  up  of 
stricken  Samaria,  Damascus  and  Gaza.  Sargon  marched 
rapidly  west  before  their  armies  were  ready,  and  defeated  them 
separately  and  carried  "the  ten  tribes  into  captivity."  Now 
again  more  strangers  were  brought  in,  and  more  citizens  sent 
out.  It  is  little  wonder,  after  all  these  mixtures  of  peoples,  that  in 
later  years  the  Jews  regarded  the  Samarians  as  not  of  their  kin, 
but  an  inferior  race,  so  that  in  the  time  of  Christ  one  could  say : 
"How  is  it  that  thou,  being  a  Jew,  askest  drink  of  me,  which  am  a 
woman  of  Samaria?  For  the  Jews  have  no  dealings  with  the 
Samaritans  1" 

It  was  during  this  campaign  that  the  Hittite  king  was 
taken  prisoner  and  his  kindgom,  once  so  powerful,  was  merged 
into  the  Assyrian  Empire. 

Not  long  after,  Hezekiah,  king  of  Judah,  attempted  to  stir 
up  an  opposition  to  the  Assyrian  tribute  payment.  Isaiah, 
the  far-seeing  statesman,  again  counselled  against  it, — vainly 
to  be  sure,  yet  constantly,  for  this  was  an  unfavorable  mo- 
ment. As  might  have  been  foreseen,  the  coalition  was  short- 
lived. 

Sargon's  work  in  time  of  peace  was  extensive.  He  built 
a  palace,  like  his  predecessors,    but  outdoing  them,  he  con- 


STORY   OF   BABYLONIA   AND  ASSYRIA.  249 

structed  a  royal  city  for  its  location.  This  was  a  custom  new 
in  Assyria,  but  we  have  seen  that  it  was  usual  in  Egypt,  during 
the  Middle  and  New  Empires.  Choosing  a  spot  not  far  from 
Nineveh,  at  the  base  of  a  mountain,  he  had  a  rectangular  area 
laid  out,  its  corners  pointing  to  the  four  cardinal  points.  First 
temples  were  built  to  the  gods,  whose  favor  he  sought  in  every 
possible  way,  even  going  to  the  length  of  paying  for  the  site 
of  the  city,  and  compensating  those  who  asked  no  money. 
After  the  temples,  the  palace  itself  arose — built  of  ivory,  palm- 
wood,  cedar,  cypress,  having  gates  of  wood  overlaid  with 
bronze.  The  eight  gates  of  the  city  were  named  for  the  eight 
leading  divinities,  the  walls  for  Asshur,  and  the  ramparts  for 
Niveb.  An  invocation  was  inscribed  to  the  gods :  "  May 
Asshur  bless  this  city,  and  this  palace!  May  he  invest  these 
constructions  with  an  eternal  brightness!  May  he  grant  that 
they  shall  be  inhabited  until  the  remotest  days!  May  the 
sculptured  bull,  the  guarding  spirit,  stand  forever  before  his 
face !  May  he  keep  watch  here  night  and  day,  and  may  his  feet 
never  move  from  this  threshold !"  The  palace  is  said  to  have 
contained  "  twenty-four  bulls  in  relief  and  two  miles  of 
sculptured  slabs."  Since  the  work  was  only  begun  in  712  b.  c, 
and  he  came  to  reside  within  in  707  b.  c,  he 
was  apparently  able  to  command  a  large  army  of  workmen. 
This  was  the  palace  whose  ruins  Botta  unearthed  in  1846, 
and  each  part  remaining  appeared  to  be  as  perfect  as  work- 
manship could  make  it. 

The  new  city  was  peopled  in  a  unique  way.  "  People  from 
the  four  quarters  of  the  world,  of  foreign  speech,  of  manifold 
tongues,  who  had  dwelt  in  mountains  and  valleys,  .  .  . 
whom  I,  in  the  name  of  Asshur  my  lord,  by  the  might  of  my 
arms  had  carried  into  captivity,  I  commanded  to  speak  one 
language  and  settled  them  therein.  Sons  of  Asshur  of  wise 
insight  in  all  things,  I  placed  over  them,  to  watch  over  them; 
learned  men  and  scribes  to  teach  them  the  fear  of  God  and  the 
King." 

It  is  supposed  that  Sargon  II.  was  murdered  in  705  b.  c. 
and  his  son  Sennacherib  succeeded  to  the  throne.  He  had 
observed  his  father's  difhculties.in  keeping  order  in  Babylonia, 
and  had  concluded  before  ever  he  came  to  the  throne  that  to 
indulge  the  pride  of  Babylon  by  longer  conforming  to  her 


250  THE  world's    progress. 

venerated  custom  of  crowning  her  king  each  year — thus  requir- 
ing his  annual  appearance, — was  mere  folly.  He  believed 
that  Babylonia,  whatever  her  history,  was  now  an  Assyrian 
province,  and  hence  the  king  of  Assyria  was  her  king.  So  he 
himself  did  not  go  at  all  to  Babylon,  but  was  merely  crowned 
in  Nineveh  as  King  of  Assyria.  Now  the  Babylonians,  far 
from  submitting  to  this  train  of  logic,  in  course  of  a  brief 
time,  crowned  their  own  king.  Thereupon  the  Chaldeans,  ever 
watchful  for  an  opportunity  to  re-establish  their  power,  set  up 
a  ruler  in  the  same  country,  farther  south.  In  702  b.  c, 
because  of  this  confusion,  Sennacherib  marched  to  Babylon, 
laid  waste  many  Chaldean  cities,  deported  200,000  people  and 
crowned  as  king  a  young  nobleman,  Babylonian  by  birth  but 
educated  at  the  Assyrian  court.  Having  so  vigorously  asserted 
his  strength,  he  was  soon  needed  in  the  west. 

The  situation  there  was  critical.  Hezekiah,  king  of  Judah, 
had  successfully  conducted  a  war  against  the  Philistines,  and 
was  therefore  regarded  by  his  subjects  as  a  great  and  mighty 
warrior.  There  was  a  strong  faction  in  the  kingdom  who  op- 
posed the  annual  payment  of  tribute  to  Assyria  and  who  be- 
lieved that  against  them  also  Hezekiah  might  assert  4iimself 
and  free  them  from  this  hated  tribute  service.  Isaiah,  under- 
standing the  vast  difference  in  the  resources  of  the  two  coun- 
tries, counselled  against  a  war,  but  it  remained  for  future 
generations  to  discern  the  clear,  far  sighted  re3<^oning  of  this 
statesman,  and  the  king,  even  had  he  chosen  to  heed  good 
counsel,  was  shortly  plunged  into  a  war  which  was  the  popular 
demand  of  his  people.  Jerusalem  prepared  for  a  siege,  and 
water  was  brought  into  the  city  from  some  distance  by  an 
aqueduct.  Egypt  promised  aid,  for  the  Ethiopian  king  who 
ruled  that  country  and  the  native  princes  who  were  struggling 
to  regain  the  throne,  all  felt  that  an  opportunity  opened  in  this 
way  to  win  glory  in  Asia  which  should  serve  as  a  lever  to 
them  at  home.  Judah  had  yet  to  learn  how  fallen  was  this 
ancient  state  and  how  incapable  of  giving  material  assistance. 

The  rebellion  spread,  for  freedom  was  dear  to  nations  in 
those  days  when  submission  meant  at  least  heavy  tributes,  and 
often  deportation  and  a  dismantled  country.  In  the  city  of 
Ekron  the  people,  stirred  by  a  hope  of  independence,  seized 
the  Assyrian  governor  and  led  him  captive  to  Hezekiah.     As 


STORY   OF   BABYLONIA   AND  ASSYRIA.  25I 

usual,  the  Assyrian  king  made  forced  marches  and  appeared 
before  he  was  expected  and  before  the  armies  were  massed, 
so  he  had  the  less  difficult  task  of  defeating  each  nation  sep- 
arately. Tyre,  one  of  the  rebel  cities,  was  first  attacked.  It 
was  not  possible  to  materially  injure  her,  since  her  defenses 
on  the  sea  were  strong;  Sidon  surrendered  and  an  Assyrian 
ruler  was  set  over  the  city ;  now  many  of  the  allies  were  con- 
sumed with  fear  and  dropped  out  of  the  coalition,  sending 
tribute  with  all  haste.  In  Ekron  those  who  had  led  the  rebel- 
lion were  killed  or  deported.  As  had  long  been  the  case,  the 
Assyrian  king  was  meeting  with  brief  resistance.  Judah  held 
out,  however.  Hezekiah  watched  for  re-enforcements  from 
Egypt,  but  before  they  drew  near,  Sennacherib  opened  battle, 
winning  with  heavy  losses.  Hezekiah  withdrew  his  forces  into 
Jerusalem  to  undergo  a  siege,  while  the  Assyrian  army  turned 
to  meet  Eg}^ptian  allies  and  captured  the  leaders.  Forty-six 
cities  around  Jerusalem  were  taken,  and  when  it  seemed  futile 
to  longer  hold  out,  Hezekiah  sent  an  embassy  to  Sennacherib 
to  ask  for  terms  of  peace.  A  sum  of  money  approaching 
$1,000,000  in  our  money,  was  demanded,  and  although  it  was 
raised  with  difficulty  in  Judah,  it  was  paid  over  ta  the  con- 
queror. However,  Hezekiah  did  not  come  out  to  meet  Sen- 
nacherib and  acknowledge  him  as  overlord,  and  the  Assyrian 
king,  feeling  that  his  victory  was  yet  indecisive,  dispatched  his 
most  trusted  generals  to  demand  the  surrender  of  Jerusalem. 
Meanwhile  he  marched  with  the  great  mass  of  Assyrian  forces 
to  intercept  more  Eg\'ptian  armies  now  approaching.  Encamp- 
ing at  Pelusium,  a  place  noted  for  its  plagues  before  that  day 
and  since,  the  army  was  stricken  in  the  night.  In  a  few 
days  only  a  remnant  of  the  great  force  remained  and  a  home- 
ward march  was  begun  at  once. 

The  Hebrews,  according  to  their  custom,  interpreted  this 
issue  to  signify  direct  intervention  of  Providence  in  their  be- 
half. Instead  of  being  led  captives  of  Assyrian  provinces  and 
having  their  land  devastated,  they  gained  fame  and  glory 
by  the  expedition.  The  Egyptians  also  claimed  a  victory — 
all  because  of  the  pestilence. 

The  two  accounts  of  the  campaign,  the  Hebrew  version 
of  the  story  as  chronicled  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  As- 
syrian version,  as  translated  from  their  tablets,  are  both  so 


252  THE  world's   progress. 

interesting  that  we  quote  them  at  length.  Such  differences 
as  they  show  are  easily  explained  in  view  of  the  standpoints  of 
each  writer. 

Returning  home,  Babylonia  was  found  to  be  in  a  state  of 
insubordination,  having  once  more  asserted  her  independence. 
Sennacherib  now  placed  his  own  son  on  the  throne,  but  still 
difficulties  multiplied.  At  last  the  Babylonians  united  with  the 
Chaldeans,  their  long-sworn  enemies,  against  Assyria.  At 
this  juncture,  in  689  b.  c,  Sennacherib  determined  to  strike 
at  the  root  of  the  trouble.  He  marched  into  the  land  and  set 
fire  to  the  city  of  Babylon,  after  plundering  its  temples  and 
palaces.  Over  the  desolate  site  of  the  city  he  then  turned  a 
canal,  converting  the  region  into  a  swamp. 

It  is  almost  staggering  even  at  this  remote  time  to  think 
of  the  pride  and  glory  of  Babylonian  life,  the  splendor  of  its 
palaces,  the  wonder  of  its  temples,  being  thus  wantonly  de- 
stroyed. Long  periods  of  peace  in  the  kingdom  had  given 
opportunity  for  art  and  literature  to  develop,  and  there  can  be 
no  question  that  countless  records  of  priceless  worth  were 
destroyed  by  the  deed  of  this  fierce  Assyrian.  The  culture  of 
Babylonia  had  indeed  succumbed  to  the  barbarism  of  Assyria. 
The  inhabitants — scholars,  artists,  artisans,  were  taken  cap- 
tives, and  deported  to  various  points  of  the  empire. 

The  following  reign  saw  all  that  was  possible  done  to 
atone  for  this  reckless  act,  but  far  beyond  what  we  can  now 
calculate,  the  loss  was  irreparable. 

Hebrew  Account  oe  the  War  with  Assyria. 

"  Now  in  the  fourteenth  year  of  King  Hezekiah  did  Sen- 
nacherib, king  of  Assyria,  come  up  against  all  the  fenced  cities 
of  Judah,  and  took  them.  And  Hezekiah,  king  of  Judah,  sent 
to  the  king  of  Assyria  to  Lachish,  saying,  *  I  have  offended ; 
return  from  me:  that  which  thou  puttest  on  me  will  I  bear.' 
And  the  king  of  Assyria  appointed  unto  Hezekiah,  king  of 
Judah,  three  hundred  talents  of  silver  and  thirty  talents  of 
gold. 

"  And  Hezekiah  gave  him  all  the  silver  that  was  found 
in  the  house  of  the  Lord,  and  in  the  treasures  of  the  king's 
house.  At  that  time  did  Hezekiah  cut  off  the  gold  from  the 
doors  of  the  temple  of  the  Lord,  and  from  the  pillars  which 


STORY   OF   BABYLONIA   AND  ASSYRIA.  253 

Hezekiah,  king  of  Judah,  had  overlaid,  and  gave  it  to  the  king 
of  Assyria. 

"  And  the  king  of  Assyria  sent  Tartan  and  Rabsaris  and 
Rab-shakeh  from  Lachish  to  King  Hezekiah  with  a  great  host 
against  Jerusalem.  And  they  went  up  and  came  to  Jerusalem. 
And  when  they  were  come  up  they  came  and  stood  by  the 
conduit  of  the  upper  pool,  which  is  in  the  highway  of  the 
fuller's  field.  And  when  they  had  called  to  the  king,  there 
came  out  to  them  Eliakim,  the  son  of  Hilkiah,  which  was  over 
the  household,  and  Shebna  the  scribe,  and  Joan  the  son  of 
Asaph,  the  recorder. 

"  And  Rab-shakeh  said  unto  them :  Speak  ye  now  to  Heze- 
kiah, Thus  saith  the  great  king,  the  king  of  Assyria:  What 
confidence  is  this  wherein  thou  trusteth?  Thou  sayest  (but 
they  are  vain  words)  I  have  counsel  and  strength  for  the  war. 
Now  on  whom  dost  thou  trust,  that  thou  rebellest  against  me  ? 

"  Now,  behold,  thou  trusteth  upon  the  staff  of  this  bruised 
reed,  even  upon  Egypt,  on  which  if  a  man  lean,  it  will  go  into 
his  hand,  and  pierce  it :  so  is  Pharaoh,  king  of  'Egypt,  unto 
all  that  trust  on  him. 

"  But  if  ye  say  unto  me,  We  trust  in  the  Lord  our  God : 
is  not  that  he,  whose  high  places  and  whose  altars  Hezekiah 
hath  taken  away  and  hath  said  to  Judah  and  Jerusalem,  Ye 
shall  worship  before  this  altar  in  Jerusalem? 

"Now,  therefore,  I  pray  thee,  give  pledges  to  my  lord 
the  king  of  Assyria,  and  I  will  deliver  thee  two  thousand 
horses,  if  thou  be  able  on  thy  part  to  set  riders  upon  them. 
How  then  wilt  thou  turn  away  the  face  of  one  captain  of  the 
least  of  my  master's  servants,  and  put  thy  trust  on  Egypt 
for  chariots  and  for  horsemen?  Am  1  now  come  up  without 
the  Lord  against  this  place  to  destroy  it?  The  Lord  said  to  me. 
Go  up  against  this  land,  and  destroy  it. 

"  Then  said  Eliakim,  the  son  of  Hilkiah,  and  Shebna,  and 
Joan,  unto  Rab-shakeh,  Speak,  I  pray  thee,  to  thy  servants  in 
the  Syrian  language ;  for  we  understand  it :  and  talk  not  with  us 
in  the  Jews'  language  in  the  ears  of  the  people  that  are  on 
the  wall.  But  Rab-shakeh  said  unto  them,  Hath  my  master 
sent  me  to  thy  master,  and  to  thee,  to  speak  these  words? 
hath  he  not  sent  me  to  the  men  which  sit  on  the  wall?  Then 
Rab-shakeh  stood  and  cried  with  a  loud  voice  in  the  Jews' 

1—18 


254  THE  world's   progress. 

language,  and  spake,  saying,  Hear  the  word  of  the  great  king, 
the  king  of  Assyria:  Thus  saith  the  king,  Let  not  Hezekiah 
deceive  you :  for  he  shall  not  be  able  to  deliver  you  out  of  his 
hand.  Neither  let  Hezekiah  make  you  trust  in  the  Lord,  say- 
ing, The  Lord  will  surely  deliver  us,  and  this  city  shall  not 
be  delivered  into  the  hand  of  the  king  of  Assyria :  Harken  not 
to  Hezekiah:  for  thus  saith  the  king  of  Assyria,  Make  an 
agreement  with  me  by  a  present,  and  come  out  to  me,  and  then 
eat  ye  every  man  of  his  own  vine  and  every  one  of  his  own  fig- 
tree,  and  drink  ye  every  one  the  waters  of  his  cistern :  Until 
I  come  and  take  you  away  to  a  land  like  your  own  land,  a  land 
of  corn  and  wine,  a  land  of  bread  and  vineyards,  a  land  of 
oil,  olive  and  of  honey,  that  ye  may  live,  and  not  die:  and 
harken  not  unto  Hezekiah,  when  he  persuadeth  you,  saying, 
The  Lord  will  deliver  us.  Hath  any  of  the  gods  of  the  nations 
delivered  at  all  his  land  out  of  the  hand  of  the  king  of  Assyria  ? 
Where  are  the  gods  of  Hamath,  and  of  Arpad  ?  where  are  the 
gods  of  Sepharvaim,  Hena,  and  Ivah?  have  they  delivered 
Samaria  out  of  mine  hand  ?  Who  are  they  among  all  the  gods 
of  the  countries,  that  have  delivered  their  country  out  of  mine 
hand,  that  the  Lord  should  deliver  Jerusalem  out  of  mine 
hand  ?  But  the  people  held  their  peace,  and  answered  him  not 
a  word :  for  the  king's  commandment  was,  saying.  Answer  him 
not.     .     .     . 

"  And  Hezekiah  prayed  before  the  Lord,  and  said,  .  .  . 
O  Lord  our  God,  I  beseech  thee  save  thou  us  out  of  his  hand, 
that  all  the  kingdoms  of  the  earth  may  know  that  thou  art 
the  Lord  God,  even  thou  only.  .  .  .  Therefore  thus  saith 
the  Lord  concerning  the  king  of  Assyria,  He  shall  not  come 
into  this  city,  nor  shoot  an  arrow  there,  nor  come  before  it 
with  shield,  nor  cast  a  bank  against  it.  By  the  way  that  he 
came,  by  the  same  shall  he  return,  and  shall  not  come  into  this 
city,  saith  the  Lord.  For  I  will  defend  this  city,  to  save  it, 
for  mine  own  sake,  and  for  my  servant  David's  sake. 

"  And  it  came  to  pass  that  night  that  the  angel  of  the 
Lord  went  out,  and  smote  in  the  camp  of  the  Assyrians  an 
hundred  fourscore  and  five  thousand :  and  when  they  arose 
early  in  the  morning,  behold  they  were  all  dead  corpses. 

"  So  Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria,  departed,  and  went  and 
returned  and  dwelt  at  Nineveh." — 11.  Kings,  18  and  19. 


srory  of  babyi^onia  and  assyria.  255 

Concerning  the  Revolt  of  Judah:  From  an  Assyrian 

Tablet. 

"But  as  for  Hezekiah  of  Judah,  who  had  not  submitted 
to  my  yoke,  forty-six  of  his  strong  walled  cities  and  the  smaller 
cities  round  about  them,  without  number,  by  the  battering  of 
rams,  and  the  attack  of  war-engines,  by  making  breaches  by 
cutting  through,  and  the  use  of  axes,  I  besieged  and  captured. 
Two  hundred  thousand,  one  hundred  and  fifty  people,  small 
and  great,  male  and  female,  horses,  mules,  asses,  camels, 
cattle  and  sheep,  without  number,  I  brought  forth  from  their 
midst  and  reckoned  as  spoil.  (Hezekiah)  himself  I  shut  up 
like  a  caged  bird  in  Jerusalem,  his  royal  city.  I  threw  up 
fortifications  against  him,  and  whoever  came  out  of  the  gates 
of  his  city  I  punished.  His  cities,  which  I  had  plundered, 
I  cut  off  from  his  land  and  gave  to  Mitinti,  King  of  Ashdod, 
.  .  .  and  made  his  territory  smaller.  To  the  former 
taxes,  paid  yearly,  tribute,  a  present  for  my  lordship,  I  added 
and  imposed  on  him.  Hezekiah  himself  was  overwhelmed  by 
the  fear  of  the  brilliancy  of  my  lordship,  and  the  Arabians 
and  faithful  soldiers  whom  he  had  brought  in  to  strengthen 
Jerusalem,  his  royal  city,  deserted  him.  Thirty  talents  of  gold, 
eight  hundred  talents  of  silver,  precious  stones,  .  .  . 
couches  of  ivory,  thrones  of  elephant  skin  and  ivory, 
ushu  and  urkarinu  woods,  of  every  kind,  a  heavy  treasure,  and 
his  daughters,  his  palace  women,  male  and  female  singers,  to 
Nineveh,  my  lordship's  city,  I  caused  to  be  brought  after  me, 
and  he  sent  his  ambassador  to  give  tribute  and  to  pay  homage." 


2S6  .   THE  world's   progress. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
Last  Years  of  Assyrian  Greatness. 

"  And  it  came  to  pass,  as  Sennacherib  was  worshipping 
in  the  house  of  Nishroch  his  god,  that  Adrammelech  and 
Sharezer  his  sons  smote  him  with  the  sword :  and  they  escaped 
into  the  land  of  Armenia.  And  Esarhaddon  his  son  reigned 
in  his  stead."  Thus  did  the  Hebrew  chronicle  the  death  of 
Sennacherib,  and  since  Assyrian  tablets  recounting  the  dire 
plot  have  long  since  been  destroyed,  we  are  thrown  wholly  upon 
the  fact  as  stated  without  explanation  or  detail. 

Esarhaddon,  who  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  680  b.  c,  had 
already  acted  as  regent  in  Babylonia,  and  had  there  acquired 
deep  veneration  and  love  for  the  Babylonian  past,  as  well  as  for 
its  life  and  culture.  He  wished  to  win  the  favor  of  its  people, 
scattered  though  they  were,  and  so  in  addition  to  being  crowned 
king  of  Assyria,  he  had  himself  proclaimed  viceroy  of  Baby- 
lonia, for  this  office  would  not  require  his  annual  presence  in 
celebration  of  the  yearly  rites.  Thus  had  his  grandfather  done, 
and  Sennacherib  only  had  ruthlessly  thrust  aside  the  national 
prejudice.  His  father  had  laid  Babylon  waste,  changing  its 
v^ery  site  into  a  swamp  and  scattering  its  proud  people  to  the 
four  winds.  Esarhaddon  immediately  planned  to  rebuild  the 
city  and  so  far  as  possible,  bring  those  departed  back  to  their 
old  homes. 

In  an  age  given  over  to  cruelty,  devastations,  selfish  plots 
and  intrigues,  it  is  surprising  to  find  that  this  king  allowed  no 
reflections  to  be  cast  upon  his  father's  memory  by  condemning 
his  Babylonian  policy.  He  had  it  set  forth  on  tablets  that  the 
gods  had  been  displeased  with  the  wrong  doing  of  Babylon,  and 
that  a  king,  merely  their  instrument,  had  in  this  way  visited 
divine  wrath  upon  the  heads  of  the  people;  while  now,  he, 
Esarhaddon,  again  acting  as  agent  for  the  gods,  ready  once 
more  to  give  their  favor  in  hope  of  future  obedience,  wouM 
MOW  rebuild  the  ancient  capital. 

Slowly  the  city  rose,  more  splendid  and  magnificent  tha» 
before.    First  the  old  temples  were  replaced,  and  around  these 


STORY  OF  BABYI.ONIA  AND  ASSYRIA.  257 

the  city  came  into  being.  Chaldeans  had  taken  possession  of 
the  land  after  the  nation  was  disrupted.  The  new  king  now 
forced  them  back,  restoring  property  wherever  possible  to  its 
rightful  owners. 

Such  being  the  situation  at  home,  abroad  the  state  o5 
affairs  was  critical.  Tyre  had  not  submitted,  nor  Judah.  Sidon 
no  longer  paid  tribute.  Vast  sums  of  money  were  needed  to 
carry  on  the  gigantic  building  project,  and  these  commercial 
sea-port  towns  offered  a  rich  reward  to  the  conqueror. 

Having  heard  that  Esarhaddon  was  determined  to  make  a 
westward  march,  the  sea-coast  cities  prepared  to  offer  resist- 
ance. Sidon  was  besieged  and  held  out  for  nearly  three  years. 
When  at  last  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  exasperated  Assyrians, 
it  was  utterly  destroyed.  Both  king  and  soldiers  were  in- 
furiated by  the  long  delay  and  plundered  until  weary.  The 
walls  of  the  town  were  broken  down  and  cast  into  the  sea; 
the  luxurious  homes  of  the  merchantmen  were  stripped  of 
their  wealth  and  razed  to  the  ground.  The  entire  city  was 
blotted  out  of  existence.  Then  the  king  set  about  erecting  a 
new  town  on  its  site,  naming  it  for  himself,  and  peopling  it 
with  those  taken  captive  in  the  nearby  mountains  while  the 
siege  was  carried  on.  Over  all  he  placed  an  Assyrian  governor, 
and  then  set  out  for  Nineveh. 

Reaching  his  capital,  he  made  a  triumphal  entry,  laden 
with  spoils,  captives  and  cattle.  Some  of  the  noblest  citizens 
of  Sidon  swelled  his  train.  Gold,  silver,  precious  stones,  rare 
woods,  dress-stuffs, — these  had  fallen  to  his  share  after  three 
years  of  waiting. 

The  siege  of  Tyre  had  been  begun  about  the  same  time 
that  Sidon  was  attacked,  but  Tyre  was  more  favorably  situated. 
She  could  not  be  cut  off  from  the  sea  and  so  could  not  be 
starved  into  submission.  Baal  was  king  and  he  proposed  to 
hold  out  against  the  besiegers.  The  Assyrians  walled  up  the 
land  side  of  the  city  and  it  was  wholly  cut  off  from  its  land 
commerce,  so  in  the  long  run,  it  would  have  to  yield.  After 
a  time,  the  siege  was  raised,  but  over-land  commerce  was  no 
longer  possible. 

Esarhaddon  knew  well  that  the  frequent  disturbances  in 
Syria  which  so  annoyed  him  and  had  so  troubled  previous 
reigns,  were  largely  instigated  by  unceasing  efforts  of  Egypt 


258  THE  world's   progress. 

to  Stir  the  cities  to  rebellion,  hoping  in  some  unquiet  times 
that  she  might  gain  a  foothold  in  western  Asia  and  share  in  the 
plunder  of  Syria,  as  pharaohs  in  early  times  had  done.  To 
understand  her  position  it  is  necessary  to  go  back  and  see  how 
Egypt  had  fared  after  losing  first  place  among  the  nations. 

The  Ethiopians,  having  taken  on  Egyptian  culture  and 
customs  centuries  before,  had  gained  political  control  as  the 
country  weakened.  Native  princes  gained  power  in  the  nomes 
and  tried  incessantly  to  regain  possession  of  the  throne.  As 
usual  there  was  so  much  personal  jealousy  among  them  that 
concerted  action  was  impossible.  Egypt's  name  had  stood  for 
power  and  great  resources  so  many  centuries,  that  even  though 
the  state  was  weak — even  tottering  within,  abroad  it  was  still 
judged  by  its  former  strength.  Assyrian  rulers  had  doubtless 
known  better  its  truer  condition,  for  Sennacherib's  generals 
told  those  of  Judah  that  looking  thence  for  aid  was  like  lean- 
ing on  a  bruised  reed. 

Esarhaddon  determined  to  strike  at  the  root  of  Syrian  dis- 
sension, and  in  673  b.  c.  led  an  army  for  the  first  time  in 
Assyrian  history  against  Egypt.  An  army  met  his  own  outside 
the  borders  and  the  result  was  indecisive.  The  Assyrians  did 
not  enter  the  land  at  all.  Three  years  later  they  defeated  an 
Egyptian  army  sent  to  meet  them,  crossed  the  border  now 
unhindered,  and  marched  rapidly  to  Memphis.  The  city, 
wholly  unprepared  for  such  unexpected  attack,  fell  at  once 
into  their  hands.  It  was  plundered  generally  and  laid  waste. 
Unquestionably  much  of  great  historic  value  was  wantonly 
destroyed  by  soldiers  who  were  allowed  to  pillage  at  will. 
Statues  of  gods  were  removed  to  Nineveh,  together  with  great 
booty — and  this  was  the  work  of  a  man  who  deplored  the  loss 
of  Babylon,  and  had  undertaken  to  rebuild  a  capital  not  yet 
known  when  Memphis  stood  the  wonder  of  the  world ! 

The  Assyrians  never  outgrew  their  ferocity,  their  savage 
thirst  for  ravage  and  murder,  and  their  culture  in  Assyria's 
most  enlightened  days  was  but  a  veneer  encasing  old  tenden- 
cies, characteristics  and  desires. 

Over  the  twenty-one  nomes,  native  princes  were  allowed 
to  rule,  as  vassals  of  an  Assyrian  governor,  set  over  the 
whole  land.  The  king  further  undertook  to  change  the  names 
of  ancient  towns,  giving  them  Assyrian  names,  but  this  never 
became  a  change  at  all — simply  a  useless  attempt. 


STORY   O^   BABYLONIA   AND   ASSYRIA.  259 

The  youngest  world-power  had  now  conquered  the  oldest. 
Surely  these  were  years  wherein  chart-makers  would  have 
had  a  sorry  time  trying  to  indicate  a  nation's  possessions. 

On  its  homeward  march  the  Assyrian  army  made  a  raid 
into  Arabia,  but  desert  marches  told  quickly  on  the  soldiers, 
and  no  lasting  results  came  of  it. 

At  this  point  Assyrian  possessions — even  the  original  king- 
dom itself — were  threatened  alarmingly  by  a  migration  start- 
ing from  the  southern  portion  of  present  Russia.  Thither 
had  come  the  Medes  in  an  early  day,  and  now  thousands  upon 
thousands  came  pouring  eastward  in  search  of  new  and  less 
crowded  homes.  It  was  hopeless  to  stay  such  an  onset  of 
troops — it  would  wear  out  many  an  army.  Places  vacated 
today  would  be  filled  shortly  by  those  pressing  in  the  rear. 
Besides,  these  people  had  no  plan  of  conquest  or  occupation  of 
the  land.  They  simply  spread  out  like  so  many  hungry  cattle, 
seeking  food  where  it  might  be  found.  All  that  could  be  done 
was  to  turn  aside  the  main  stream  of  progress.  These  new 
comers  settled  down  in  Syria,  reaching  east  to  the  land  of 
the  Medes  and  far  beyond  it.  In  spite  of  watchful  care,  many 
fertile  lands  were  lost  to  Assyria. 

In  668  a  second  Egyptian  campaign  was  planned  by  the 
king,  but  before  starting  out,  he  had  his  son,  Asshur-banipal, 
recognized  as  regent  of  Babylonia.  This  was  to  cause  much 
trouble  in  the  future,  because  it  once  more  divided  the  now 
united  country,  and  made  an  opportunity  for  old  jealousies 
to  creep  in  again.  On  the  march,  Esarhaddon  died,  leaving 
the  future  to  regard  him  as  noblest  among  Assyrian  kings — 
the  most  just  and  fair-minded  of  his  race. 

Asshur-banipal  who  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  668  B.  C, 
was  naturally  fond  of  learning  and  was  a  prodigious  book- 
collector.  By  using  that  term  for  Assyrian  days  we  mean 
of  course  a  collector  of  clay  tablets  whereon  were  inscribed 
literary  productions. 

The  Eg}'ptian  campaign  had  already  opened,  for  it  was 
plain  that  the  conquests  of  two  years  before  were  practically 
lost.  Sea-coast  towns  in  Egypt  submitted  at  once.  Little 
opposition  was  encountered  in  the  Land  of  the  Pyramids,  and 
Assyrian  government  was  soon  re-instated.  The  suspicion 
of  the  generals  was  awakened  by  the  simplicity  of  their  task 


26o  thS  world's  progress. 

and  withdrawing  their  army,  they  loitered  not  far  away.  No 
sooner  had  they  left  than  the  Assyrian  government,  tolerated 
in  the  presence  of  the  army,  was  thrown  off  and  old  forms 
instituted.  Now  it  was  the  Egyptian's  turn  to  be  surprised 
when  the  army,  supposed  to  be  far  on  its  homeward  march, 
reappeared  in  the  land.  The  revolt  was  quickly  put  down, 
and  the  leaders  killed  with  as  great  cruelty  as  ever  blackened 
Assyrian  pages. 

In  660  B.  c.  Egypt  declared  her  independence  and  this  was 
the  first  great  loss  of  the  Assyrian  empire,  soon  to  be  followed 
by  many  more. 

Probably  before  this  Tyre  had  been  forced  to  yield,  and 
the  king  had  sent  his  son  and  daughter  to  the  Assyrian  court 
as  an  indication  of  submission. 

A  raid  was  made  into  Media,  some  of  its  cities  being  taken 
and  their  inhabitants  deported.  For  such  experiences  the 
Medes  grew  to  hate  the  Assyrians  with  increasing  fervor. 
Asshur-banipal  was  finding  some  difficulty  in  holding  together 
the  empire  of  his  fathers,  and  when  revolts  occurred,  they 
were  put  down  with  greatest  severity. 

Babylonia  had  maintained  peace  for  fifteen  years,  but  the 
people  clung  to  the  traditions  of  their  early  history,  and  harked 
back  to  a  time  when  Babylon  was  the  greatest  city  of  the 
world.  Now,  except  for  freedom  from  tribute,  they  ranked 
as  any  other  Assyrian  province.  Encouraged  by  the  feelings 
of  those  under  him,  the  prince-regent  conceived  the  notion  of 
stirring  up  all  the  provinces  to  revolt  at  the  same  time,  hoping 
that  Babylonian  independence  might  be  gained  in  time  of 
confusion.  He  was  urged  on  to  this  course,  which  was  mis- 
guided and  ill  timed,  with  little  chance  for  success.  Its  only  hope 
lay  in  keeping  secret  the  plot  so  far  as  the  Assyrian  king  was 
concerned.  There  were,  however,  many  who  would  gladly  try 
to  benefit  themselves  by  unearthing  any  plan  for  revolt.  There 
might  also  be  governors  of  provinces  sufficiently  far-sighted  to 
have  nothing  to  do  with  any  treasonable  plot,  and  these  could 
not  be  expected  to  guard  such  a  secret. 

At  last  the  Chaldeans  on  the  south,  Palestine,  some  pro- 
vinces of  Syria  and  some  Arabian  tribes,  promised  help. 
The  Babylonians  were  destined  to  learn  how  different  was 
that  from  actually  giving  it.     To  allay  any  suspicions  Asshur- 


STORY   OF    BABYLONIA   AND   ASSYRIA.  36l 

banipal  might  have,  an  embassy  of  Babylonian  nobles  visited 
his  court  to  give  him  assurance  of  his  brother's  loyalty.  When 
the  news  came  that  the  Babylonians  had  seized  Ur  and  Uruk, 
the  Assyrian  king  was  much  astonished.  He  spent  some  little 
time  in  complaint  of  his  faithless  brother;  an  inscription  ran: 
"At  that  time  Shamash-shum-ukin,  the  faithless  brother, 
to  whom  I  had  done  good,  and  whom  I  had  established  as 
king  of  Babylon,  and  for  whom  I  had  made  every  possible 
kind  of  royal  decoration,  and  had  given  him,  and  had  gathered 
together  soldiers,  horses,  and  chariots,  and  had  intrusted  them 
to  him,  and  had  given  him  cities,  fields,  and  woods,  and  the 
men  dwelling  in  them,  even  more  than  my  father  had  com- 
manded— even  he  forgot  that  favor  I  had  shown  him,  and 
he  planned  evil.  Outwardly  with  his  lips  he  spoke  friendly 
things,  while  inwardly  his  heart  plotted  rebellion." 

Asshur-banipal  waited  for  a  favorable  omen  before  start- 
ing out  to  quell  the  rebellion,  and  it  came  at  last  in  this  way : 
"  In  those  days  a  seer  slept  in  the  beginning  of  the  night  and 
dreamed  a  dream,  thus :  *  On  the  face  of  the  Moon  it  is 
written :  Whoever  deviseth  evil  against  Asshur-banipal,  king 
of  Asshur,  makes  enmity,  a  violent  death  I  appoint  for  them. 
With  the  edge  of  the  sword,  the  burning  of  fire,  famine,  and  the 
judgment  of  the  Pest-god,  I  will  destroy  their  lives.*  This  I 
heard  and  trusted  to  the  will  of  Sin,  my  lord.  I  gathered  my 
army ;  against  Shamash-Shum-ukin  I  directed  the  march." 

Help  came  to  the  revolting  Babylonians  from  few  of  the 
promised  allies.  Arabia,  Chaldea,  and  the  land  of  the  Ela- 
mites  sent  troops,  but  in  the  battle  waged  they  suffered  fear- 
ful defeat.  Babylon  underwent  a  severe  siege  and  at  last 
the  king  committed  suicide.  Then  the  gates  of  the  city  were 
thrown  open  and  great  was  the  slaughter.  Asshur-banipal 
had  himself  proclaimed  king,  and  pushed  on  to  punish  the 
allies  for  their  part  in  the  rebellion.  Much  of  the  land  of 
the  Elamites  was  laid  waste,  and  left  smoking  by  this  man 
who  patronized  learning.  The  weakening  of  these  people 
left  Assyria  open  to  attacks  later  from  the  Medes. 

The  later  years  of  Asshur-banipal's  reign  were  filled  with 
peaceful  interests.  He  rebuilt  the  great  palace  of  his  father, 
and  in  one  of  its  upper  chambers  was  amassed  the  great 


2t»2  THE  WORLD^S   PROGRESS. 

number  of  tablets,  referred  to  as  the  library  of  Nineveh.  In  626 
B.  c.  the  king  died. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  reigns  immediately  following  is 
scanty.  Babylonia  asserted  her  independence  and  the  Assyrian 
king  had  a  difficult  task  to  hold  the  empire  together. 
Determined  to  recover  the  kingdom  to  the  south,  he  marched 
against  its  capital  while  its  king  was  distant  with  his  army. 
Cut  off  from  Babylon,  the  king  appealed  to  the  Medes  for 
aid.  They  cared  not  at  all  to  help  the  Babylonian,  but  they 
hated  with  undying  hatred  the  very  name  of  Assyria.  Their 
numbers  had  often  been  increased  by  refugees,  driven  from 
their  homes  by  Assyrian  armies,  and  they  themselves  had 
experienced  defeat  at  the  hands  of  Assyrian  troops.  The 
possibility  of  crippling  the  great  power  of  Asia  stimulated 
them  to  aid  the  Babylonians.  They  soon  repulsed  the  Assyrian 
army  near  Babylon  and  drove  it  north.  Still  they  pursued  the 
fleeing  army  and  forced  the  king  and  his  army  to  retire  into 
Nineveh.  At  last  the  fate  the  Assyrians  had  so  often  meted 
out  to  others  was  measured  out  to  them.  Great  wealth  was 
stored  in  Nineveh,  and  this  the  besieging  army  wished  for 
themselves.  The  walls  were  strong  and  were  long  defended, 
but  an  assault  finally  carried  all  before  it.  Nineveh,  built  by 
the  wealth  of  spoils,  beautified  by  plunder  from  the  known 
world,  became  the  spoils  of  the  Medes,  who  stripped  the 
temples  and  palaces  and  then  set  fire  to  the  city. 

Nineveh  fell  in  606  b.  c.  The  Assyrians  were  scattered 
to  the  four  winds  and  grass  grew  over  the  once  smoking 
ruins.  Two  hundred  years  later,  when  Xenophon  led  his 
army  over  this  spot  on  his  return  to  Greece,  none  knew  that 
they  passed  over  the  site  of  the  once  great  world-city. 

The  civilization  developed  by  the  Babylonians  had  been 
passed  on  to  the  Assyrians.  It  was  now  left  a  heritage  for 
the  Chaldeans,  to  whom  descended  the  legacies  of  both 
countries,  and  in  turn  they  dominated  the  valley  of  the 
Euphrates.  As  for  Assyrian  greatness,  so  far-reaching  and 
wide,  the  Hebrew  told  the  story  in  poetic  language  centuries 
ago,  and  today  none  could  set  it  forth  more  vividly. 

"  Behold,  the  Assyrian  was  a  cedar  in  Lebanon  with  fair 
branches,  and  with  a  shadowing  shroud,  and  of  an  high 
stature ;  and  his  top  was  among  the  thick  boughs.     The  waters 


STORY   OF   BABYLONIA   AND   ASSYRIA.  2^ 

made  him  great,  the  deep  set  him  up  on  high,  with  her  rivers 
running  round  about  his  plants  and  sent  out  her  little  rivers 
unto  all  the  trees  of  the  field.  Therefore  his  height  was 
exalted  above  all  the  trees  of  the  field,  and  his  boughs  were 
multiplied,  and  his  branches  became  long  because  of  the  multi- 
tude of  waters,  when  he  shot  forth. 

"  All  the  fowls  of  heaven  made  their  nests  in  his  boughs, 
and  under  his  branches  did  all  the  beasts  of  the  field  bring 
forth  their  young,  and  under  his  shadow  dwelt  all  great 
nations.  Thus  was  he  fair  in  his  greatness,  in  the  length 
of  his  branches;  for  his  root  was  by  the  great  waters.  The 
cedars  in  the  garden  of  God  could  not  hide  him:  the  fir 
trees  were  not  like  his  boughs,  and  the  chestnut  trees  were 
not  like  his  branches ;  nor  any  tree  in  the  garden  of  God  was 
like  unto  him  in  his  beauty.  .  .  .  All  the  trees  of  Eden, 
that  were  in  the  garden  of  God,  envied  him.     .     .     . 

"  Strangers,  the  terrible  of  the  nations,  have  cut  him  off, 
and  have  left  him :  upon  the  mountains  and  in  all  the  valleys 
his  branches  are  fallen,  and  his  boughs  are  broken  by  all  the 
rivers  of  the  land;  and  all  the  people  of  the  earth  are  gone 
down  from  his  shadow,  and  have  left  him.  Upon  his  ruin 
shall  all  the  fowls  of  the  heaven  remain,  and  all  the  beasts 
of  the  field  shall  be  upon  his  branches.  To  the  end  that  none 
of  all  the  trees  by  the  waters  exalt  themselves  for  their 
height,  neither  shoot  up  their  top  among  the  thick  boughs, 
neither  their  trees  shall  stand  up  in  their  height,  all  that  drink 
water:  for  they  are  delivered  unto  death,  to  the  nether  parts 
of  the  earth,  in  the  midst  of  the  children  of  men,  with  them 
that  go  down  to  the  pit." — Bsekiel  31. 


264  THE  world's   PR0CRSS8. 

CHAPTER   IX. 
The  Chaldean  Empire  in  Babylonia. 

We  have  found  frequent  mention  of  the  Chaldeans,  and 
it  is  now  necessary  to  understand  just  what  was  their  position 
at  the  fall  of  Nineveh. 

The  Chaldeans  of  this  period  were  descendants  of  the  Sem- 
itic invaders,  who  settled  in  the  Sea-lands,  including  parts  of 
eastern  Arabia  as  well  as  lands  in  Babylonia  washed  by 
the  Persian  Gulf.  Originally  a  pastoral  people,  they  had 
taken  to  trade  and  though  long  in  Babylonia,  they  had  not 
mingled  greatly  with  others.  They  looked  with  envious  eyes 
upon  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Euphrates  and  coveted  the 
wealth  of  its  cities.  On  this  account  they  would  willingly 
follow  any  leader  who  might  enable  them  to  gain  these  lands 
and  riches  for  themselves.  Because  such  a  victory  would 
unquestionably  give  kingship  over  the  people,  many  of  their 
princes  made  efforts  to  gain  political  control,  causing  no  end 
of  trouble  to  the  Babylonian  or  Assyrian  officials  in  charge 
of  maintaining  the  peace.  This  makes  clear  the  motive 
prompting  the  numerous  attempts  to  usurp  the  government, 
already  noted. 

The  old  Babylonians  had  received  so  many  infusions  of 
blood  from  the  Elamites,  Kassites,  and  colonists  settled  in 
their  territory  by  different  Assyrian  rulers,  that  the  pure 
Babylonian  stock  no  longer  existed  to  any  extent,  although 
Babylonian  ideas,  culture  and  characteristics  had  been  absorbed 
by  those  who  came  to  dwell  in  the  land.  The  empire  which 
now  grew  up  in  the  valley  was  essentially  Chaldean.  It  has 
been  called  the  New  Empire  of  Babylonia. 

Upon  the  death  of  Asshur-banipal,  he  who  had  previously 
been  king-regent  asserted  himself  as  king  of  Babylonia,  and 
so  Nabopolassar  has  sometimes  been  called  the  founder  of 
the  New  Chaldean  Empire,  although  in  truth  he  was  merely 
one  who  declared  Babylonian  independence  at  a  time  when 
none  were  strong  enough  to  dispute  the  claim.  The  empire, 
established  in  this  way,   followed  Babylonian  precedence  in 


STORY   OF   BABYLONIA   AND   ASSYRIA.  265 

all  matters.  The  kings  concerned  themselves  with  war  only 
when  compelled  to  do  so,  their  works  being  works  of  peace — 
the  building  of  temples,  the  construction  of  canals. 

One  foreign  war  of  some  importance  occurred  during  the 
first  reign — the  reign  of  Nabopolassar.  Necho  II.,  pharaoh 
of  Eg>'pt,  desired  to  regain  those  Asiatic  possessions  which 
Thothmes  III.  and  later  warrior  kings  had  won  for  the  Nile 
kingdom.  To  this  end  he  led  an  army  north,  demanding  the 
submission  of  the  sea-coast  towns.  Gaza  was  quickly  won, 
and  this  city  was  key  to  the  east.  Tyre  and  Sidon  would 
pay  tribute  to  any  nation  rather  than  have  their  commerce 
again  destroyed  by  war.  Judah  alone  resisted.  Too  long 
had  this  little  country  held  out  against  a  various  enemy  to 
yield  tribute  upon  demand.  Josiah  was  now  Judah's  king. 
He  led  an  army  against  the  Egyptian  forces  but  was  repulsed 
and  he  himself  killed.  In  confusion  the  Hebrew  army  fled 
to  Jerusalem  where  a  younger  brother  of  Josiah  was  pro- 
claimed king.  The  Egyptian  pharaoh  now  collected  a  heavy 
fine  from  the  people  of  Judah  and  he  named  a  king  for  them 
in  place  of  the  one  just  popularly  crowned. 

The  old  Assyrian  empire,  so  long  the  fear  of  all  nations, 
was  now  under  control  of  three  distinct  peoples:  the  Chal- 
deans held  the  Euphrates  valley,  the  Medes  held  the  north, 
and  Egypt  had  appropriated  western  Syria.  Now  the  pharaoh 
determined  to  further  extend  his  empire.  He  would  reach 
the  very  banks  of  the  Euphrates.  This  plan  threatened  the 
Chaldean  state,  and  Nabopolassar  being  too  old  to  undertake 
active  service  in  the  field,  sent  his  son  Nebuchadnezzar  to 
meet  the  Egyptian  force.  This  was  soon  put  to  flight.  The 
Babylonian  prince  pursued  and  had  not  word  come  of  the 
death  of  the  king,  his  father,  the  Babylonian  army  would 
have  been  able  to  march  victorious  into  Egypt.  It  was,  how- 
ever, more  important  to  hold  the  kingdom  at  home  than  to 
pursue  fleeing  troops  abroad,  so  the  prince  went  home  to  be 
crowned  Nebuchadnezzar  II.,  king  of  Babylonian,  and  to  enjoy 
one  of  the  longest  reigns  in  Babylonian  history.  The  city 
of  Babylon  became  his  pride,  and  the  erection  of  temples  and 
palac€s  attracted  him  more  than  conquests. 

Notwithstanding,  the  kingdom  of  Judah  compelled  atten- 
tion by  refusing  after  three  years'  peace  to  longer  pay  tribute. 


266  THE  world's  progress. 

The  war-party  in  this  little  state  seems  often  to  have  been 
strong  and  always  to  have  been  eager  for  independence,  while 
its  adherents  were  generally  so  blinded  by  their  own  enthus- 
iasm that  they  were  unable  to  estimate  correctly  their  prob- 
able chance  for  success.  Isaiah  had  long  been  dead.  Jere- 
miah held  his  place  of  influence  and  he  labored  diligently  to 
show  his  people  the  folly  of  their  intent.  He  succeeded  only 
in  drawing  censure  upon  himself  and  in  597  B.  c,  Nebuch- 
adnezzar sent  an  army  to  besiege  Jerusalem.  The  Judean  king 
Jehoiakim,  suddenly  died,  and  a  youth  about  eighteen  years 
of  age  ascended  the  throne.  He  thought  best  to  surrender, 
whereupon  he,  his  mother  and  court,  were  taken  as  captives 
to  Babylon,  together  with  7,000  soldiers  and  1,000  artisans. 
The  remainder  of  the  inhabitants  were  left  to  pay  tribute 
and  remain  subservient  to  Babylonian  rule. 

In  Egypt,  Hophra  had  come  to  the  throne.  Like  his 
predecessor,  he  longed  for  Syrian  possessions,  and  now  tried 
to  stir  up  the  sea-coast  states  to  rebellion.  No  folly  could 
have  been  plainer — for  Judah  it  meant  destruction  itself  to 
set  its  strength  against  the  forces  of  Babylonia.  Jeremiah 
thundered  his  bitterest  reproaches.  He  sought  vainly  to  bring 
his  countrymen  to  their  senses  and  save  them  from  utter  ruin. 
But  the  spirit  of  rebellion  was  abroad,  and  many  times  it  has 
spread  similarly  through  a  land,  drawing  to  its  cause  voices 
seldom  heard,  and  kindling  a  desire  which  cannot  be  put  down 
by  cool  argument  and  reason.  So  Jeremiah  continued  to 
grow  in  disfavor,  and  was  finally  held  a  prisoner  by  those 
he  tried  to  aid. 

It  has  been  pointed  out  with  much  force  that  the  stricken 
nation  of  Judah  had  become  the  prey  of  neighboring  tribes 
and  that  an  insufferable  situation  impelled  it  to  war,  but  Baby- 
lonia could  alone  protect  it,  and  Babylonian  protection  was 
not  to  be  won  by  rebellion  against  its  rule.  Egypt  was  to 
again  prove  the  "  bruised  reed "  which  would  fail  utterly 
when  leaned  upon. 

From  the  Babylonian  standpoint  the  situation  was  this: 
here  was  a  little  state  which  for  hundreds  of  years  had  been 
the  center  of  western  dissensions.  Its  revolts  had  already 
cost  Babylonia  and  Assyria  dear  in  fighting  men  and  tire- 
some sieges,  and  now  it  rntist  l)e  forever  quelled  if  attention 


STORY   O?   BABYU)NIA  AND   ASSYRIA.  267 

was  to  be  given  to  home  affairs.  Crippling  its  strength  would 
not  avail,  for  that  had  been  already  tried.  Trusting  to  the 
vows  of  its  kings  was  manifestly  useless,  since  the  king  who 
led  the  revolt  had  sworn  by  his  mighty  God  to  be  faithful 
to  Babylon.  That  solemn  pledge  he  had  now  broken.  Noth- 
ing short  of  laying  waste  the  land  and  scattering  the  people 
would  apparently  put  an  end  to  the  trouble. 

Moab,  Ammon,  Tyre  and  Sidon  were  now  in  league  with 
Judah  and  Eg}'ptian  aid  was  promised.  The  war  party  in 
Jerusalem  went  about  shouting  that  Jehovah  was  with  them — 
no  matter,  seemingly,  what  folly  they  undertook. 

In  587  B.  c.  the  Babylonian  army  besieged  Jerusalem, 
intending  to  starve  the  city  into  submission.  The  siege  was 
raised  when  Egyptian  reinforcements  drew  near,  long  enough 
to  defeat  them  and  send  them  home  in  confusion.  Then  it 
went  on  again.  In  586  b.  c.  the  Babylonians  broke  through 
the  walls  of  Jerusalem  and  the  city  was  destroyed.  The  king 
who  had  broken  faith  was  taken  to  Babylon  and  blinded,  while 
his  sons  were  slain.  Such  punishments  as  these  had  not  been 
common  with  the  old  Babylonians,  and  they  show  that  the 
Chaldeans  were  not  of  the  ancient  temperament, — merciful 
and  kind.  The  best  citizens  of  Jerusalem  were  taken  captives, 
while  the  poorer  ones  were  left  to  cultivate  the  soil.  The 
great  prophet  Jeremiah  was  thought  to  be  friendly  to  the 
government  of  Babylon,  and  was  given  permission  to  go  where 
he  would.  He  remained  with  the  stricken  band  of  Hebrews, 
who  soon  after  journeyed  into  Egypt. 

Tyre,  as  an  ally,  was  besieged  but  here  the  problem  of 
cutting  the  city  off  from  outside  communication  again  arose. 
The  siege  lasted  for  thirteen  years  and  in  the  end  the  city 
paid  tribute.  In  567  b.  c.  Nebuchadnezzar's  army  invaded 
Egypt,  but  it  was  merely  a  raid  to  terrorize  the  Egyptians 
and  put  an  end  to  Egyptian  interference. 

The  king  was  now  free  to  give  his  energy  to  internal 
affairs,  and  his  attention  was  chiefly  centered  in  building  and 
beautifying  Babylon.  Notable  among  his  undertakings  were 
the  walls  of  the  city — counted  among  the  seven  wonders  of 
the  world.  They  were  so  well  constructed  that  had  they  been 
defended,  the  city  could  never  have  been  taken  save  by 
treachery  inside  the  capital  itself.  In  562  b.  c.  Nebuchad- 
nezzar died — the  last  great  king  of  an  ancient  nation. 


268  thB  world's  progress. 

Of  the  following  reign  little  is  known,  the  king  being 
assassinated  in  the  second  year  of  his  rule.  Two  other  un- 
eventful reigns  followed,  and  then  Nabonidus  ascended  the 
throne.  This  man  was  a  student — ^not  a  king.  He  did  one 
good  service  for  future  ages ;  being  devoted  to  rebuilding  the 
temples  of  the  gods,  he  had  his  workmen  excavate  deep  down 
into  the  old  foundations  of  the  temple  of  the  sun-god  in  Sippar, 
which  he  says  had  not  been  seen  for  3200  years,  for  the  record- 
tablet,  always  placed  in  the  corner.  Then  he  caused  a  new 
tablet  to  be  inserted,  repeating  the  history  of  the  temple  and 
enumerating  his  repairs.  Modern  excavators  have  been 
greatly  aided  by  these  tablets  of  Nabonidus.  While  he  was 
thus  absorbed,  his  country  was  fast  plunging  on  to  ruin.  His 
was  an  age  when  the  mere  existence  of  a  nation  depended 
upon  its  aggressive  policy.  While  the  entire  resources  of  the 
country  were  being  expended  upon  shrines  sacred  to  the  gods, 
there  was  neither  time  nor  money  for  the  maintenance  of  an 
army.  Matters  were  allowed  to  take  their  own  course  for 
awhile,  and  later  the  king's  son,  Belshar-usur,  or  Belshazzar, 
was  left  to  manage  government  concerns.  For  this  reason, 
the  Hebrews  recorded  him  as  the  last  Babylonian  king,  while 
in  truth  his  father  bore  the  kingly  title. 

Even  when  danger  threatened  the  state  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  scholar-king  himself,  poking  around  among  his  ancient 
record-tablets,  was  finally  forced  to  take  notice  of  it,  he  gave 
no  thought  to  his  kingdom  or  his  subjects,  but  was  simply 
alarmed  for  the  safety  of  his  statue-deities.  These  he  had 
hurried  into  the  capital  from  all  parts  of  the  land.  So  occu- 
pied was  he  lest  perchance  a  god  or  two  might  some  way 
escape  him,  that  he  had  no  time  to  prepare  the  city  for  attack, 
and  in  the  end  Babylon,  the  pride  of  its  age,  came  into  the 
hands  of  the  conqueror  without  a  blow! 

The  fact  was  that  there  were  many  within  the  kingdom 
who  would  gladly  welcome  outside  interference.  The 
Hebrews  had  settled  down  in  their  quarter  and  had  become  the 
leading  people  of  commerce  and  loaners  of  money.  One 
commercial  firm  alone — Egibi  &  Sons — filled  a  place  for  that  age 
not  unlike  the  modern  Rothschilds.  These  people,  who  may 
have  been  of  Jewish  descent,  hated  the  king  who  had  destroyed 
their  city  of  Jerusalem  and  his  descendants,  and  would  willingly 


STORY  OF  BABYLONIA  AND  ASSYRIA.  269 

help  any  one  who  might  rob  Babylonion  kings  of  their  empire. 
It  has  been  surmised  that  for  aid  rendered  they  were  allowed  to 
go  back  to  their  own  country  and  rebuild  Jerusalem  on  its 
early  site. 

Not  only  were  the  Hebrews  an  element  to  be  reckoned 
with;  the  priests  of  the  Babylonian  gods  had  been  repeatedly 
offended  by  Nabonidus,  and  they  too  joined  the  opposition, 
beyond  doubt. 

So  great  a  city  as  Babylon  had  never  before  existed.  No 
city  since  has  had  so  long  a  history,  and  yet,  without  a  blow 
struck  in  its  defense,  it  passed  into  the  possession  of  a  people 
just  taking  on  the  ways  of  civilized  life.  It  was  little  wonder 
that  it  fell  shortly  into  ruins,  soon  to  be  grass-covered  and 
like  Nineveh,  forgotten! 

Since  606  b.  c.  the  Medes,  conquerors  of  Assyria,  had 
been  extending  their  territory.  They  were  now  a  people  of 
strength,  united  under  King  Astyages. 

In  the  land  earlier  called  Elam,  now  Persia,  a  great  con- 
queror appeared — Cyrus  the  Great.  He  defeated  the  Medes 
under  Astyages,  and  so  rapidly  did  his  empire  come  into 
being,  that  all  civilized  nations  were  roused  to  the  danger 
of  a  world-conqueror.  In  546  b.  c.  Egypt,  Babylonia,  Lydia 
and  Sparta  arrayed  their  forces  against  Cyrus,  to  check  his 
power,  but  his  camels  put  their  cavalry  to  flight,  and  he  won 
the  decisive  battle.  Having  annexed  Asia  Minor,  he  turned 
to  Babylon.  As  we  have  seen,  the  city  of  Babylon  might 
have  held  out  indefinitely  against  attack,  but  when  Belshazzar 
led  an  army  against  a  detachment  of  Persian  troops,  none 
were  left  to  defend  the  capital.  The  old  tale  of  Herodotus 
that  Cyrus  turned  the  Euphrates  out  of  its  course  and  entered 
the  city  through  its  channel,  is  mere  fiction.  Such  exertion 
was  unnecessary,  for  the  city  gates  swung  open  wide  to  the 
conqueror. 

And  thus  we  come  to  the  end  of  the  political  history  of 
the  Tigris-Euphrates  states — a  mere  skeleton  of  framework, 
which  we  can  now  fill  out  with  some  account  of  their  social, 
industrial  and  religious  life. 


1—19 


ASSYRIAN   PALACE  AT  NINEVEH. 

CHAPTER  X. 

The  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  Compared. 

To  understand  the  Babylonian,  we  must  take  into  con- 
sideration both  the  nature  of  his  country  and  the  origin  of 
his  race.  Apart  from  these  two  important  factors,  the  marked 
differences  between  himself  and  his  Assyrian  brother  would 
not  be  clear. 

We  have  found  that  Babylonia  was  an  alluvial  plain, 
sloping-  gently  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  made  fertile  by  the 
annual  overflow  and  deposits  of  two  rivers.  As  in  Egypt, 
so  here  remarkable  yields  of  grain  rewarded  the  sower  if  he 
but  supplied  necessary  moisture  by  maintaining  a  system  of 
well-regulated  canals.  Regarding  the  origin  of  the  Baby- 
lonians, we  found  that  they  sprang  from  a  union  of  Semitics 
with  the  earlier  Turanian  settlers  of  the  country,  receiving 
later  infusion  of  blood  from  the  Kassites  and  Elamites.  This 
intermingling  of  races  and  peoples  resulted  in  a  nation  whose 
characteristics  differed  widely  from  the  purer  Semitic  stock 
that  peopled  Assyria. 

"  The  Babylonian  was  a  stout,  thick-set  man,  somewhat 
short,  with  straight  nose,  wide  nostrils,  and  square  face.  The 
Assyrian,  on  the  other  hand,  was  tall  and  muscular,  his  nose 
was  slightly  hooked,  his  lips  were  full,  his  eyes  dark  and 
piercing.  His  head  and  face  showed  an  abundance  of  black 
curly  hair.     .     .     . 

"  The  Babylonian  was  essentially  an  irrigator  and  culti- 
vator of  the  ground.  The  cuneiform  texts  are  full  of 
references  to  the  gardens  of  Babylonia,  and  the  canals  by  which 
they  were  watered.  It  was  a  land  which  brought  forth 
abundantly  all  that  was  entrusted  to  its  bosom.  .  .  .  But 
the  fear  of  floods  and  the  reclamation  of  the  marsh  lands 
demanded  constant  care  and  labor,  the  result  being  that  the 
country  population  of  Babylonia  was,  like  the  country  popu- 
lation of  Egypt,   an  industrious  peasantry,   wholly  devoted 

270 


SOCIAL  LIFE  IN  MESOPOTAMIA.  27I 

to  agricultural  work,  and  disinclined  to  war  and  military 
operations.  In  the  towns,  where  the  Semitic  element  was 
stronger,  a  considerable  amount  of  trade  and  commerce  was 
carried  on,  and  the  cities  on  the  sea-coast  built  ships  and  sent 
their  merchantmen  to  distant  lands.     .     .     . 

"  The  character  of  the  Assyrian  was  altogether  different 
from  that  of  the  Babylonian.  He  was  a  warrior,  a  trader, 
and  an  administrator.  The  peaceful  pursuits  of  the  agricul- 
tural population  of  Babylonia  suited  him  but  little.  His  two 
passions  were  fighting  and  trading.  But  his  wars,  at  all 
events  in  the  later  days  of  the  Assyrian  Empire,  were  con- 
ducted with  a  commercial  object.  ...  It  was  to  destroy 
the  trade  of  the  Phoenician  cities  and  to  divert  it  into  Assyrian 
hands,  that  the  Assyrian  kings  marched  their  armies  to  the 
west;  it  was  to  secure  the  chief  highways  of  commerce  that 
campaigns  were  made  into  the  heart  of  Arabia  and  Assyrian 
satraps  were  appointed  in  the  cities  of  Syria.  The  Assyrian 
was  indeed  irresistible  as  a  soldier,  but  the  motive  that  inspired 
him  was  as  much  the  interest  of  the  trader  as  the  desire  for 
conquest."  * 

Side  by  side  with  the  Babylonian's  farming  concerns,  grew 
his  love  for  study  and  his  development  of  the  peaceful  arts. 
An  elementary  education  was  general  in  Babylonia.  As  in- 
dustry and  commerce  brought  wealth  and  created  thus  a  leisure 
class,  education  and  learning  flourished  in  Babylonian  cities. 
Schools  grew  into  prominence,  and  in  the  realm  of  astronomy 
and  certain  of  the  sciences,  some  advance  was  made  by  which 
the  Greeks  later  profited.  Quite  the  reverse  was  true  in  As- 
syria. A  feverish  desire  for  commercial  gain  and  for  mili- 
tary conquest  prevented  progress  in  the  arts  of  peace.  Learn- 
ing was  confined  to  a  few — professional  scribes  supplied  secre- 
taries for  the  state  and  even  wrote  private  letters  for  private 
citizens.  When  the  luxuries  of  the  ancient  world  could  be 
won  as  tribute,  the  Assyrian  scorned  to  produce  them  for  him- 
self. With  blood  unmixed  with  any  peace-loving  people,  he 
retained  the  characteristics  of  his  earlier  Arabian  home.  He 
left  the  cultivation  of  the  country  to  slaves  and  dwelt  in  cities, 
when  war  and  trade  left  him  intermittent  periods  at  home. 

Both  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  were  religious,  but  here 

» Sayce :  Social  Life  Among  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians,  13. 


272  THE  world's   PROGRESS. 

again  we  find  differences  due  to  environment.  The  Baby- 
lonian, inheriting  the  conjuring  and  magic  of  the  earHer  Chal- 
dean, possessed  a  religion  which  held  him  in  constant  dread 
of  demons.  The  greatest  aid  and  solace  his  religion  afforded 
was  to  assist  him  in  driving  away  foes  which  assailed  him 
at  every  turn.  The  Assyrian  on  the  contrary,  showed  the  same 
proud  bearing  in  his  religious  concerns  as  in  other  aspects 
of  Hfe.  Asshur  was  his  mighty  God,  strong  in  battle  and. 
unequaled  in  courage.  Firm  in  his  conviction  that  Asshur 
would  give  him  victory,  he  went  forth,  like  his  Hebrew  brother, 
to  overcome  all  others  and  destroy  other  gods  which  offended 
the  true  God. 

In  origin  and  traditions  alike,  the  Assyrian  and  the 
Hebrew  in  early  times  present  many  similarities,  and  the 
religion  of  the  one  is  comparable  at  many  points  with  that 

of  the  other. 

Houses. 

It  is  supposed  that  in  earliest  times  the  dwellers  in  the 
Euphrates  valley  built. their  huts  of  reeds  which  grew  in  pro- 
fusion along  the  river  and  the  canals.  These  in  time  were 
replaced  by  huts  of  sun-dried  brick.  We  have  already  learned 
that  the  low  level  plains  of  Babylonia  afforded  little  or  no 
stone  for  building  purposes.  Oven-dried  orick  was  the  most 
substantial  building  material  known  and  this  was  so  costly, 
on  account  of  the  scarcity  of  fuel,  that  only  the  temples,  kings' 
palaces,  and  homes  of  the  wealthy  were  made  of  it.  The 
great  majority  of  houses  then,  were  constructed  of  clay  mud, 
shaped  in  bricks  and  dried  in  the  sun. 

The  more  pretentious  dwellings  of  nobles  and  kings  were 
placed  on  artificially  constructed  heights — ^huge  piles  of  brick- 
work, in  order  to  raise  them  above  the  gnats  and  the  malaria- 
breeding  fogs  of  the  marshes.  The  huts  of  the  poor  were 
located  wherever  opportunity  offered.  While  these  contained 
but  one  or  two  rooms  with  small  apertures  in  the  clay  walls 
for  windows,  and  had  no  floor  save  the  ground,  the  houses 
of  the  wealthy  were  frequently  several  stories  high,  the  upper 
floors  being  reached  by  outside  stairways.  The  use  of  the  arch 
was  known  in  Babylonia  from  4000  B.C.,  a  perfect  keystone  ex- 
ample having  been  found  at  Nippur  by  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania expedition.  Windows  were  furnished  with  tapestries 
to  exclude  the  storms  and  intense  heat  of  noonday.   Flat  roofs 


SOCIAL  LIFB  IN  MESOPOTAMIA.  273 

supplied  a  place  for  the  women  to  perform  many  household 
duties,  or,  if  these  were  performed  by  slaves  elsewhere,  they  sat 
here  to  embroider  their  tapestries  and  to  chat  with  their  friends. 
Here  too,  on  hot  nights,  mattresses  were  thrown  down  for  the 
hours  of  sleep. 

Wherever  possible  a  garden  surrounded  the  house.  The 
pride  of  the  Babylonian,  as  of  the  Egyptian,  was  his  care- 
fully tended  garden,  whether  it  was  a  tiny  plot  of  land  or  a 
vast  overhanging  terrace  like  that  of  Babylon's  queen. 

Streets  were  narrow  and  exceedingly  dirty,  for  into  them 
all  refuse  and  rubbish  from  the  houses  accumulated.  We 
learn  that  sometimes  the  entire  street  would  be  filled  up  to 
the  very  doors  of  the  dwellings,  and  then,  instead  of  clearing 
them  out,  an  upper  story  was  added  to  the  houses,  new  doors 
provided,  and  the  occupants  started  anew  on  a  fresh  elevation. 

In  homes  of  the  wealthy  the  furniture  was  simple,  and  in 
the  huts  of  the  poor  it  was  scanty  indeed.  Chairs,  stools, 
and  tables  were  in  use;  a  mat  often  constituted  the  bed,  al- 
though pictures  of  most  uncomfortable  looking  bedsteads  have 
been  preserved,  these  being  possessed  only  by  the  wealthy. 

The  Assyrians  who  went  from  Babylonia  into  their  north- 
ern land,  took  with  them  the  habits  and  customs  there 
acquired.  While  stone  was  plentiful,  they  used  it  only  for 
foundations,  or  for  the  less  important  portion  of  their  buildings, 
continuing  to  make  mud  brick  for  the  rest,  as  they  had  done 
before.  While  hills  and  elevations  were  now  available  on 
every  hand,  they  still  erected  huge  piles  of  brick  or  stone 
and  crowned  these  by  their  buildings.  The  Assyrian  blood, 
unmixed  with  other  tribes  or  peoples,  produced  no  ingenuity, 
no  inventive  genius.  The  Assyrian  remained  an  imitator — 
never  a  creator.  For  this  reason,  we  find  close  similarity 
between  the  houses  of  the  two  countries. 

Certain  features  which  became  inseparable  with  later  archi- 
tecture had  their  beginnings  in  Babylonia.  In  early  times  the 
roof  which  covered  the  mud  hut  was  supported  by  dried  palm 
stems;  gradually  a  more  substantial  support  was  substituted, 
and  in  this  way  the  column  had  its  origin  and  was  adopted 
and  improved  upon  by  the  Greeks.  Again,  interior  house 
decoration  may  be  traced  back  to  these  Babylonian  houses 
built  of  brick.  In  houses  of  the  well-to-do,  the  unsightly 
bricks  were  covered  by  a  coatmg  of  stucco  and  upon  this 


274  The  world's  progress. 

were  painted  various  scenes  and  ornamentations.  In  Assyria, 
slabs  of  soft  lime-stone  were  used  instead  of  the  stucco,  and 
figures  of  horses  and  men,  hunting  scenes  and  battles,  were 
carved  in  bas-relief  upon  them.  Indeed  much  of  our  knowl- 
edge concerning  the  life  of  the  people  has  been  gained  from 
a  study  of  the  reliefs  discovered  in  buried  palaces. 

Regarding  the  daily  lives  of  those  who  dwelt  within  these 
mud  brick  houses,  we  have  less  detailed  information  than 
concerning  the  ancient  Egyptian.  Fewer  scenes  of  ordinary 
life  were  painted  in  the  Tigris-Euphrates  valleys,  and  what- 
ever was  entrusted  to  the  clay  stood  far  greater  chance  of 
being  destroyed  than  that  committed  to  Egyptian  stone. 

FAMII.Y  Life. 

In  considering  the  family  life,  the  position  accorded  to 
woman  and  the  marriage  laws  and  regulations  are  of  first 
importance. 

In  early  times  in  Babylonia,  a  man  received  a  dowry  with 
his  wife.  Polygamy  was  not  infrequent  but  a  strong  check 
was  placed  upon  it  by  requiring  the  husband,  in  case  of  divorce, 
to  return  the  wife's  dowry  to  her  and  allow  her  to  return 
home  or  maintain  her  own  establishment.  The  income  from 
the  dowry  was  enjoyed  by  both  husband  and  wife,  but  it 
remained  the  portion  of  the  wife  and  could  be  willed  accord- 
ing to  her  pleasure.  In  case  of  a  woman's  second  marriage, 
her  first  dowry  belonged  to  her,  subject  to  the  claim  of  her 
children  for  one-half  of  its  value. 

In  both  Babylonia  and  Assyria  married  women  enjoyed 
many  liberties.  They  might  carry  on  business  enterprises, 
borrow  or  loan,  manage  their  own  property  and  dispose  of 
it  at  their  will.  They  could  seek  justice  in  the  courts,  and 
if  they  belonged  to  the  middle  classes,  could  come  and  go  at 
pleasure.  The  women  of  noble  families  were  more  carefully 
guarded,  and  seldom  appeared  unattended  in  public. 

Girls  who  were  not  provided  with  dowries  might  be  pur- 
chased and  so  become  superior  slaves  of  their  husbands. 
Children  might  be  sold  by  their  parents  and  brothers  might 
sell  their  sisters,  but  in  these  countries,  slaves  were  not  despised 
as  inferiors  and  inhumanly  treated.  They  were  often  adopted 
into  families,  and  since  those  of  noble  birth  were  not  in- 


SOCIAL  LIFE  IN  MESOPOTAMIA.  275 

frequently  taken  captives  in  war,  the  slave  might  be  superior 
to  the  owner.  However,  this  last  was  not  so  common  in 
Mesopotamia  as  it  was  later  in  Rome.  The  fact  which  alone 
assured  slaves  of  good  treatment  was  that  there  was  generally 
no  race  difference  to  engender  feeling  betwen  slave  and  master. 
Indeed  one  case  is  cited  in  those  days  of  quickly  reversed 
fortunes,  where  the  slave  in  a  few  years  became  the  master 
and  his  former  owner  became  his  property! 

Marriage  was  both  a  civil  and  a  religious  ceremony,  and 
the  contract  was  signed  in  the  presence  of  a  priest.  In  a  code 
of  Babylonian  laws  compiled  about  2250  b.  c,  a  law  pro- 
vided that  "  If  a  man  has  taken  a  wife  and  has  not  executed 
a  marriage-contract,  that  woman  is  not  a  wife."  Another 
provided  for  one  who  is  helpless :  "  If  a  man  has  married  a 
wife  and  a  disease  has  seized  her,  if  he  is  determined  to  marry 
a  second  wife,  he  shall  marry  her.  He  shall  not  divorce  the 
wife  whom  the  disease  has  seized.  In  the  home  they  made 
together  she  shall  dwell  and  he  shall  maintain  her  as  long 
as  she  lives."  '^ 

Both  sons  and  daughters  could  inherit  property,  and  accord- 
ing to  Babylonian  law,  whosoever  possessed  property,  could 
will  it,  or  dispose  of  it,  with  certain  well  established  restric- 
tions. In  case  there  were  no  children  to  inherit  an  estate, 
it  was  a  common  practice  to  adopt  them.  Thus  families  were 
prevented  from  dying  out. 

Children  were  cared  for,  sent  to  school,  taught  trades  or 
professions,  and  probably  a  certain  amount  of  family  life  was 
enjoyed  while  they  were  growing  up.  The  rights  of  each 
member  of  the  family  were  definitely  recognized  by  law. 
Home  life  as  we  today  understand  the  phrase,  was  unknown 
in  antiquity. 

We  can  contrast  the  condition  in  Babylonia,  where  the 
individual,  instead  of  the  family,  was  recognized  by  the  law 
to  that  in  Rome  of  a  later  time,  when  the  family  was  the 
unit  of  the  state,  and  the  pater  familias  managed  all  family 
affairs  without   state  interference  or  restriction. 

2  Johns :  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  Laws,  Contracts  and  Letters,  56,  58. 


i76  THE  wori^d's  progress. 

CHAPTER   XI. 
Morality  of  the  Ancient  Babylonians. 

For  some  years  past,  the  French  explorer  De  Morgan 
has  been  making  extensive  excavations  at  Susa,  the  capital 
of  ancient  Persia,  and  before  the  rise  of  Persia,  the  capital 
of  Elam  as  early  as  3000  b.  c.  In  the  winter  of  1901-1902, 
having  removed  layers  of  earth  containing  ruins  of  Persian 
palaces,  he  reached  deposits  contemporary  with  some  of  the 
old  Elamite  kings.  Here  was  discovered  a  stone  monument 
inscribed  with  the  code  of  Hammurabi.  As  we  have  seen, 
this  king  ruled  Babylonia  about  2000  b.  c.  He  it  was  who 
united  all  the  little  city-states  into  one  kingdom  with  its  capi- 
tal at  Babylon.  Proving  himself  a  statesman  as  well  as  a 
warrior,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  welfare  of  his  subjects. 
He  repaired  old  canals  and  constructed  new  ones,  restored 
the  temples  and  above  all,  gave  the  country  a  uniform  system 
of  laws.  These  laws  were  not  made  by  Hammurabi — gen- 
erally speaking  at  least.  They  had  been  long  established 
by  custom  and  he  merely  codified  such  customs  and  earlier 
decisions  into  a  system  so  that  justice  might  be  administered 
alike  throughout  the  realm.  The  laws  were  then  inscribed 
upon  stone  slabs  and  erected  at  certain  places  where  the  people 
could  read  them,  and  those  who  felt  themselves  injured  might 
know  what  redress  lay  open  to  them. 

The  particular  stele  unearthed  by  De  Morgan  had  been 
set  up  originally  in  the  town  of  Sippara.  Later  Elamite  kings 
became  powerful  enough  to  invade  Babylonia  and  lay  the 
country  under  tribute.  During  this  period,  one  Elamite  king 
had  removed  the  stone  monument  from  Sippara  and  taken  it 
home  with  his  spoils.  It  had  graced  his  triumphal  procession 
upon  his  return  and  was  set  up  at  his  capital.  49  columns 
of  inscription  were  engraved  upon  it,  but  the  Elamite  king 
caused  5  to  be  removed  and  the  stone  to  be  re-polished,  in 
order  that  his  name  might  be  therein  inserted.  For  some 
reason  this  was  forgotten  or  omitted. 

Of  the  282  laws  once  carved  upon  the  stele,  all  are  still 
legible.     Their  discovery  is  most  important  for  the  history 


SOCIAL  LIFE  IN  MESOPOTAMIA.  277 

of  ancient  Babylonia,  as  it  has  enabled  scholars  to  reconstruct 
the  standards  of  morality  and  justice  current  when  the  country 
came  into  its  first  strength  and  power.  We  may  be  sure  that 
these  laws  were  in  vogue  much  earlier  than  the  time  of 
Hammurabi  and  they  lived  on  with  little  change  for  many 
years  after.  They  without  doubt  furnished  the  basis  for  the 
legal  code  throughout  the  history  of  Babylonia,  and  with- 
out some  knowledge  of  them  we  would  never  have  been  able 
to  understand  the  civilization  of  the  country  as  it  is  known 
today.  It  is  comparable  to  the  "Mosaic  Code,"  which  is  made  up 
of  different  strata  from  different  periods,  cir.  1000  B.C.  to 
500  B.C.  The  similarity  between  the  two  codes  harks 
back  to  an  early  period  when  the  two  peoples  had  not  yet  left 
their  Arabian  home,  and  indicates  general  Semitic  customs. 
Hammurabi's  code  "  is  concerned  little,  if  at  all,  with  religious 
matters;  the  chief  content  is  almost  entirely  civil  and  criminal, 
dealing  with  such  subjects  as  marriage,  the  family,  property 
rights,  agricultural  and  commercial  activities." 

It  is  on  the  basis  of  these  laws  now  translated  that  the 
morality  of  the  ancient  Babylonians  has  been  worked  out. 
We  find  that  the  people  were  on  the  borderland  of  retaliation, 
and  punishments  often  took  the  form  of  fines.  There  was 
still  the  old  tribal  "  group  responsibility  " — that  is,  the  chil- 
dren often  had  to  suffer  for  the  sins  of  the  father.  Distinc- 
tion was  now  made  between  intentional  and  unintentional  in- 
jury. Trial  by  ordeal  was  sometimes  allowed,  especially 
when  magic  was  thought  to  have  been  used.  Death  was  a 
frequent  punishment.  Banishment  might  be  inflicted.  On 
the  whole,  the  practices  in  Babylonia,  before  and  after  2000 
B.  c,  were  not  so  severe  as  those  common  in  England  a  century 
ago,  when  petty  larceny  was  met  by  extreme  punishment 

The  Babylonians  carried  the  idea  of  contract  and  written 
agreement  farther  than  any  other  ancient  people.  Under- 
standings which  are  today  made  verbally  between  men  were 
inscribed  on  clay  tablets,  duly  impressed  by  the  seals  of  the 
parties  concerned,  and  carefully  preserved.  We  find  the  law 
required  receipts  and  written  contracts  as  early  as  2000  b.  c. 
For  example,  "  If  a  merchant  has  given  to  an  agent  corn 
wool,  oil,  or  any  sort  of  goods  to  traffic  with,  the  agent  shall 
write  down  the  money  value,  and  shall  return  that  to  the 
merchant.     The  agent  shall  then  take  a  sealed  receipt  for  the 


278  THE  world's   progress. 

money  that  he  has  given  to  the  merchant.  If  the  agent  for- 
gets and  has  not  taken  a  sealed  receipt  for  the  money  he  gave 
to  the  merchant, .  money  that  has  not  been  acknowledged  by 
receipt  shall  not  be  put  down  in  the  accounts."  ^  Regarding 
m.oney  given  bankers :  "  If  a  man  has  given  another  gold, 
silver,  or  any  goods  whatever  on  deposit,  all  that  he  gives 
shall  be  shown  to  witnesses,  and  take  a  bond  and  so  give  on 
deposit.  If  he  has  given  on  deposit  without  witnesses  and 
bonds,  and  has  been  defrauded  where  he  made  his  deposit, 
he  has  no  claim  to  prosecute."  * 

"  An  eye  for  an  eye,  and  a  tooth  for  a  tooth  "  was  demanded 
by  the  Code  of  Hammurabi. 

"  If  a  man  has  knocked  out  the  eye  of  a  patrician,  his  eye 
shall  be  knocked  out. 

"  If  he  has  broken  the  limb  of  a  patrician,  his  limb  shall 
be  broken. 

"  If  he  has  knocked  out  the  eye  of  a  plebeian  or  has  broken 
the  limb  of  a  plebeian,  he  shall  pay  one  mana  of  silver. 

"  If  a  patrician  has  knocked  out  the  tooth  of  a  man  that 
is  his  equal,  his  tooth  shall  be  knocked  out.  If  he  has  knocked 
out  the  tooth  of  a  plebeian,  he  shall  pay  one-third  of  a  mana 
of  silver. 

"  If  a  man  has  struck  another  in  a  quarrel,  and  caused 
him  permanent  injury,  that-  man  shall  swear,  *  I  struck  him 
without  malice,'  and  shall  pay  the  doctor."  * 

Theft  at  a  fire  was  made  a  capital  offense.  "  If  a  fire 
has  broken  out  in  a  man's  house  and  one  who  has  come  to  put 
it  out  has  coveted  the  property  of  the  householder  and  appro- 
priated any  of  it,  that  man  shall  be  cast  into  the  self-same 
fire."  * 

Fees  of  the  surgeon  were  graded  by  law,  and  severe  penal- 
ties were  inflicted  for  unskillful  operations.  Probably  these 
were  not  strictly  enforced  but  were  intended  to  prevent  mal- 
practice. 

Marriage  laws  and  regulations  governing  inheritance  were 
necessarily  definite  in  a  country  where  a  man  might  have 
more  than  one  wife.     Since  perpetuation  of  a  family  through 


J  Johns :  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  Laws,  Letters  and  Contracts  ;  Ham- 
marabi's  Code,  104.  105.  2  ibid.,  122,  123.  » Ibid.,  196,  197.  198,  201.  206. 
*Ibid.,  25. 


SOCIAL  U?K  IN  MESOPOTAMIA.  279 

adoption  was  frequent,  laws  protected  both  foster  children 
and  foster  parents. 

"  If  a  man  has  brought  up  a  child,  whom  he  has  taken  to 
be  his  son,  but  has  not  reckoned  him  with  his  sons,  that  foster 
child  shall  return  to  his  father's  house 

"  If  a  craftsman  has  taken  a  child  to  bring  up  and  has 
taught  him  his  handiwork,  he  shall  not  be  reclaimed.  If  he 
has  not  taught  him  his  handicraft,  that  foster  child  shall  return 
to  his  father's  house." 

Injury  which  today  would  necessitate  the  payment  of 
damages,  in  ancient  Babylonia  might  even  be  punished  with 
death.  "  If  a  builder  has  built  a  house  for  a  man,  and  has 
not  made  his  work  sound,  and  the  house  he  built  has  fallen, 
and  caused  the  death  of  its  owner,  that  builder  shall  be  put 
to  death.  If  it  is  the  owner's  son  that  is  killed,  the  builder's 
son  shall  be  put  to  death. 

"If  he  has  caused  the  loss  of  goods,  he  shall  render  back 
whatever  he  has  destroyed.  Moreover,  because  he  did  not 
make  sound  the  house  he  built,  and  it  fell,  at  his  own  cost 
he  shall  rebuild  the  house  that  fell." 

Workmen  were  required  to  do  faithful  work  or  make 
good  consequent  losses.  "  If  a  boatman  has  built  a  boat  for 
a  man,  and  has  not  made  his  work  sound,  and  in  that  same 
year  that  boat  is  sent  on  a  voyage  and  suffers  damage,  the 
boatman  shall  rebuild  that  boat,  and,  at  his  own  expense,  shall 
make  it  strong,  or  shall  give  a  strong  boat  to  the  owner. 

In  a  land  where  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  was  the  great 
industry,  naturally  many  regulations  refer  to  the  lease  of 
ground  and  the  rent  to  be  paid  by  the  farmer  to  the  owner  of 
the  estate.  Because  the  very  production  of  the  soil  depended 
upon  the  maintenance  of  canals,  neglect  in  the  care  of  the 
dikes  was  severely  punished. 

"  If  a  man  has  hired  a  field  to  cultivate  and  has  caused 
no  corn  to  grow  on  the  field,  he  shall  be  held  responsible  for 
not  doing  the  work  on  the  field  and  shall  pay  an  average  rent. 

"  If  a  man  has  given  his  garden  to  a  gardener  to  farm, 
the  gardener,  as  long  as  he  holds  the  garden,  shall  give  the 
owner  of  the  garden  two-thirds  of  the  produce  of  the  garden 
and  shall  take  one-third  himself. 

"  If  a  man  has  neglected  to  strengthen  his  dike  and  has 


aSo  THB  wori,d's  progress. 

not  kept  his  dike  strong-,  and  a  breach  has  broken  out  in  hi.« 
4ike,  and  the  waters  have  flooded  the  meadow,  the  man  in 
whose  dike  the  breach  has  broken  out  shall  restore  the  corn 
he  has  caused  to  be  lost.  If  he  be  not  able  to  restore  the 
com,  he  and  his  goods  shall  be  sold,  and  the  owners  of  the 
meadow  whose  corn  the  water  has  carried  away  shall  share 
the  money. 

"  If  a  man  has  opened  his  runnel  for  watering  and  has 
left  it  open,  and  the  water  has  flooded  his  neighbor's  field, 
he  shall  pay  him  an  average  crop." 

That  justice  might  be  administered  uniformly  throughout 
the  realm,  courts  were  established  in  different  cities,  and  Ham- 
marabi  insured  the  well-being  of  his  subjects  by  further  creat- 
ing a  court  of  appeals,  held  in  Babylon.  To  this  superior 
court  anyone,  thinking  himself  unfairly  treated  in  the  lower 
courts,  might  have  a  hearing.  Perjury  was  severely  punished. 
"  If  a  man  has  borne  false  witness  in  a  trial,  or  has  not 
established  the  statement  that  he  has  made,  if  that  case  be 
a  capital  trial,  that  man  shall  be  put  to  death. 

"  If  he  has  borne  false  witness  in  a  civil  law  case,  he 
shall  pay  the  damages  in  that  suit."  Judges  were  always 
restricted  by  law  and  were  held  to  strict  account  in  administer- 
ing justice.  Any  suspicion  of  bribery  expelled  the  judge 
from  his  seat. 

"  If  a  judge  has  given  a  verdict,  rendered  a  decision, 
granted  a  written  judgment,  and  afterwards  has  altered  his 
judgment,  that  judge  shall  be  prosecuted  for  altering  the  judg- 
ment he  gave  and  shall  pay  twelvefold  the  penalty  laid  down 
in  that  judgment.  Further,  he  shall  be  publicly  expelled  from 
his  judgment-seat  and  shall  not  return  nor  take  his  seat  with 
the  judges  at  a  trial." 

Other  public  servants  were  required  to  deal  justly  with 
the  people.  Governors  of  provinces  who  oppressed  the  in- 
habitants or  in  any  way  were  unjust  to  those  dependent  upon 
them,  laid  themselves  liable  to  a  death  sentence  if  charges 
against  them  could  be  proven. 

In  the  light  of  these  laws  we  would  conclude  that  the 
Babylonians  had  reached  a  high  stage  of  morality  when  au- 
thentic history  of  their  kingdom  begins.  Honesty,  truth,  fair- 
dealing, — these  were  demanded  by  the  laws  of  the  realm,  and 


SOCIAL  LIFE  IN  MESOPOTAMIA.  28t 

penalties  attached  to  crimes  violating  them.  One  who  was 
injured  must  bring  his  cause  before  a  judge  and  allow  dis- 
interested persons  to  render  a  decision.  Instead  of  retaliation 
upon  the  assailant,  money  was  sometimes  received  as  com- 
pensation for  injury.  In  more  flagrant  cases,  the  law  imposed 
the  penalty  of  death.  A  man  could  not  slander  his  neighbor 
without  risk  of  punishment. 

"  If  the  claimant  of  lost  property  has  not  brought  the 
witnesses  that  know  his  lost  property,  he  has  been  guilty  of 
slander,  he  has  stirred  up  strife,  he  shall  be  put  to  death. 


"  If  a  man  has  not  his  witnesses  at  hand,  the  judge  shall 
set  him  a  fixed  time  not  exceeding  six  months,  and  if  within 
six  months  he  has  not  produced  his  witnesses,  the  man  has 
lied ;  he  shall  bear  the  penalty  of  the  suit." 

Protection  was  assured  the  weak  and  helpless  by  this 
code.  It  was  customary  to  receive  hostages  as  security  for 
debt — the  debtor's  son  and  slave.  Such  a  hostage  was  en- 
titled to  fair  treatment  and  a  law  made  it  an  offense  to  mis- 
use him.  "  If  a  hostage  has  died  of  blows  or  want  in  the 
house  of  the  creditor,  the  owner  of  the  hostage  shall  prose- 
cute his  creditor,  and  if  the  deceased  were  free-born,  the 
creditor's  son  shall  be  put  to  death ;  if  a  slave,  the  creditor  shall 
pay  one-third  of  a  mana  of  silver,  furthermore,  he  shall  lose 
whatever  it  was  that  he  lent." 

Regarding  intemperance  among  the  Babylonians,  they  used 
beer  freely,  but  appear  to  have  gone  to  no  such  excesses  as 
were  common  among  the  Egyptians.  The  price  of  beer  was 
fixed  by  law  and  an  overcharge  was  punishable  by  drowning. 

The  morality  of  the  people  seems  to  have  been  very  slightly 
influenced  by  their  religion.  While  all  Semitics  have  been 
strongly  religious  people,  the  Babylonians  had  reached  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  secularism  in  their  religion.  Their  temples 
were  financial  centers  for  the  country  and  were  of  more  direct 
interest  to  the  people  because  from  them  they  might  negotiate 
small  loans  to  tide  them  over  emergencies  perhaps  than  because 
the  deity  of  the  locality  had  there  his  center  of  worship. 

A  lengthy  prologue  setting  forth  the  titles  of  Hammurabi 
and  the  gods  that  gave  him  power,  preceded  his  code  of  laws. 
These  were  followed  by  an  epilogue  similar  in  nature.     The 


282 


THE  world's  progress. 


king  calls  down  curses  upon  any  future  ruler  who  should 
cause  his  wholesome  regulations  to  be  altered.  "  In  the  future, 
in  days  to  come,  at  any  time,  let  the  king  who  is  in  the  land, 
guard  the  words  of  righteousness  which  I  have  written  on 
my  stele.  Let  him  not  alter  the  judgment  of  the  land  which 
I  judged  nor  the  decisions  I  decided.  Let  him  not  destroy  my 
bas-relief.  If  that  man  has  wisdom  and  is  capable  of  directing 
his  land,  let  him  attend  to  the  words  which  I  have  written  upon 
my  stele,  let  him  apprehend  the  path,  the  rule,  the  law  of  the 
land  which  I  judged,  and  the  decision  I  decided  for  the  land, 
and  so  let  him  guide  forward  the  black-headed  race;  let  him 
judge  their  judgment  and  decide  their  decision,  let  him  cut 
off  from  his  land  the  proud  and  violent,  let  him  rejoice  in  the 
flesh  of  his  people.'" 

Blessings  were  given  him  who 'should  respect  this  code  of 
laws  and  terrible  curses  heaped  upon  any  who  might  disregard 
it.  Much  of  Babylonia's  prosperity  appears  to  have  resulted 
from  the  enforcement  of  these  impartial  judgments. 

"Johns:  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  Laws,  Letters  and  Contracts;  Ham* 
marabi's  Code,  104,  105. 


BABYLONIAN  BRICK.      THE  KING  S  NAME  AND  TITLES 
WERE  INSCRIBED  ON  EACH  BRICK. 


SOCIAL  wet  IN  MESOPOTAMIA.  283 

CHAPTER  XII. 
Literature  and  Learning. 

The  Babylonians  produced  quite  an  extensive  literature. 
Their  writings  treated  of  religion,  mathematics,  astronomy, 
astrology  and  geography,  while  some  attempt  was  made  to  ex- 
plain animal  and  plant  life.  History  in  Babylonia  was  limited 
almost  wholly  to  royal  inscriptions  and  lists  of  kings.  In 
Assyria,  on  the  other  hand,  the  greater  portion  of  the  literature 
related  to  history,  and  the  kings  set  forth  the  happenings  of 
their  reigns  with  directness  and  considerable  detail.  Diplo- 
matic affairs,  correspondence  with  Babylonia  and  foreign  prov- 
inces, official  letters,  tribute  lists  and  royal  decrees,  make  up 
a  large  part  of  the  surviving  tablets. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  library  of  Asshurbanipal, 
or  the  Ninevan  library,  and  have  seen  what  a  world  of  light 
was  thrown  upon  Assyrian  civilization  when  its  surviving 
tablets  were  at  last  deciphered.  Babylonia  maintained  libraries, 
however,  before  Nineveh  was  founded. 

These  clustered,  for  reasons  which  we  shall  soon  see, 
around  the  temples.  At  Erech  were  early  collected  writings 
which  were  concerned  with  the  religion  of  the  ancient  Chal- 
deans, together  with  the  myths  and  legends  of  the  country. 
So  many  tablets  were  preserved  in  this  temple  that  Erech  was 
called  the  "  city  of  books."  A  library,  rich  in  mathematical 
lore,  grew  up  at  Larsa,  another  at  Nippur,  and  still  another  at 
Cathah.  Smaller  libraries  were  attached  to  all  the  great 
temples. 

When  we  speak  of  "  libraries  "  in  Mesopotamia,  collections 
of  clay  tablets  are  meant.  Rooms  were  frequently  provided 
within  the  temples  for  the  storing  of  these  clay  books.  The 
size  of  the  tablet  varied  greatly.  The  largest  were  flat  and 
about  9  by  6}^  inches;  smaller  ones  were  slightly  convex, 
while  tiny  ones,  not  more  than  one  inch  long,  containing  but 
a  line  or  two.  have  been  found.  Sometimes  the  lettering  is 
so  fine  that  it  could  have  been  done  only  with  the  aid  of  a  lens, 
and  it  cannot  be  read  without  one. 


284  THE  WORIvD'S  progress. 

In  these  valleys,  the  cheapest,  most  available  writing  ma- 
terial was  the  soft  clay,  ever  in  evidence.  When  bricks  had 
been  partially  dried  in  the  sun,  a  substance  was  formed  which 
readily  received  impressions,  and  these  became  firm  as  the 
tablet  hardened.  Both  sides  and  sometimes  the  edges  as  well, 
were  written  upon,  and  little  pegs  of  wood  provided  legs  for 
the  brick  to  rest  upon  when  reversed,  that  the  soft  impressions 
might  not  be  injured.  To  make  the  whole  proof  against  fire 
and  water,  it  was  finally  baked  in  an  oven.  When  so  treated, 
a  material  was  made  which  proved  more  enduring  against 
action  of  the  elements  than  either  parchment  or  papyrus. 

It  is  quite  certain  that  papyrus  and  possibly  parchment  as 
well  were  used  for  writing  purposes,  especially  in  the  later 
period,  but  no  fragment  of  either  has  survived. 

Certain  disadvantages  attached  to  the  cheap  tablets.  They 
were  heavy  and  unwieldy  to  hold  or  carry,  but  more  especially, 
they  allowed  no  embellishments  or  lengthy  descriptions.  Owing 
to  the  laborious  method  of  transcribing  records,  everything  was 
of  necessity  abbreviated  and  simplified.  Thus  we  see  how  one 
thing  acts  upon  another — the  country  afforded  only  clay 
tablets  for  writing  material;  these,  limited  because  of  size 
and  weight,  curtailed  speech  and  so  influenced  the  style  of 
expression. 

Occasionally  one  tablet  constituted  a  book,  but  more  often 
several  tablets  were  needed  to  contain  the  entire  writing. 
Thus  the  Deluge  Story  is  the  eleventh  tablet,  or  chapter,  of  a 
series  numbering  twelve  in  all.  Seventy  tablets  composed  a 
single  work  on  astronomy,  while  the  three  books  comprising 
the  earliest  religious  texts  covered  200  tablets.  Each  tablet 
was  carefully  numbered  and  known  by  the  first  line  of  the 
book;  as,  for  example,  one  work  treated  on  the  creation  and 
began :  "  Formerly  that  which  is  above  was  not  yet  called 
the  heaven ;"  so  the  first  tablet  of  the  series  was  entitled : 
"  Formerly  that  which  is  above,  No.  1 ;"  the  second,  "  For- 
merly that  which  is  above.  No.  2,"  and  so  on  through  the 
entire  series. 

The  ancient  Chaldeans  believed  that  literature  and  the 
art  of  writing  were  gifts  from  the  gods,  and  in  the  myth 
which  to  them  explained  how  knowledge  came  into  the  world, 
it  was  numbered  among  the  things  taught  them  by  the  Man- 


SOCIAL  U?E  IN  MESOPOTAMIA.  285 

Fish,  Cannes.  This  is  the  myth  as  Berosus  told  it :  "  There 
was  originally  at  Babylonia  a  multitude  of  men  of  foreign 
race  who  had  colonized  Chaldea,  and  they  lived  without  order, 
like  animals.  But  in  the  first  year  (of  the  new  order  of 
things)  there  appeared  from  out  the  Persian  Gulf  where  it 
borders  upon  Babylonia,  an  animal  endowed  with  reason,  who 
was  called  Oannes.  The  whole  body  of  the  animal  was  that 
of  a  fish,  but  under  the  fish's  head  he  had  another  head,  and 
also  feet  below,  growing  out  of  his  fish's  tail,  similar  to  those 
of  a  man ;  also  human  speech,  and  his  image  is  preserved  to  this 
day.  This  being  used  to  spend  the  whole  day  amidst  men, 
without  taking  any  food,  and  he  gave  them  an  insight  into  let- 
ters, and  sciences,  and  every  kind  of  art ;  he  taught  them  how 
to  found  cities,  to  construct  temples,  to  introduce  laws  and  to 
measure  land;  he  showed  them  how  to  sow  seeds  and  gather 
in  crops ;  in  short,  he  instructed  them  in  everything  that  soft- 
ens manners  and  makes  up  civilization,  so  that  from  that  time 
no  one  has  invented  anything  new.  Then,  when  the  sun  went 
down,  this  monstrous  Oannes  used  to  plunge  back  into  the  sea 
and  spend  the  night  in  the  midst  of  the  boundless  waves,  for 
he  was  amphibious." 

It  was  believed  that  learning  and  letters  were  under  the 
special  protection  of  the  gods,  and  for  this  reason  it  was  fitting 
to  preserve  books  in  the  temples.  The  libraries  thus  established 
were  cared  for  by  scribes  and  were  open  to  the  public.  Many 
were  engaged  constantly  in  copying,  repairing  and  taking  care 
of  the  tablets.  An  order  of  celibate  priests,  not  unlike  the 
monks  of  the  Middle  Ages,  devoted  itself  to  the  task  of  book- 
making,  regarding  the  work  as  a  pious  undertaking. 

Among  the  most  ancient  books  recovered  is  one  containing 
bits  of  folk-lore,  popular  songs  and  maxims.  One  of  the 
maxims  runs: 

"Like  an  oven  that  is  old 
Against  thy  foes  be  hard  and  strong." 

A  fragment  of  a  ploughman's  song  says : 
"My  knees  are  marching — my  feet  are  not  resting; 
With  no  wealth  of  thy  own — grain  thou  makest  for  me." 

The  Creation  legends  were  among  the  most  ancient  writ- 
ings. 

1—20 


286  THE  world's  progress. 

'^A  plant  had  not  been  brought  forth,  a  tree  had  not  been  created. 

A  brick  had  not  been  made,  a  beam  had  not  been  formed. 

A  house  had  not  been  built,  a  city  had  not  been  constructed. 

A  city  had  not  been  made,  earthly  things  had  not  been  made 
glorious. 

Nipur  had  not  been  built,  (its  temple)  E-kura  had  not  been  con- 
structed. 

Erech  had  not  been  built,  (its  temple)  E-Ana  had  not  been  con- 
structed. 

The  deep  had  not  been  made,  Eridu  had  not  been  constructed. 

As  for  the  glorious  temple  (of  Eridu),  the  house  of  the  gods,  its 
seat  had  not  been  made. 

The  whole  of  the  lands,  the  sea  also,  (had  not  been  formed). 

When  within  the  sea  the  current  was 

In  that  day  Eridu  was  made.  E-Sagila  was  constructed, 

E-Sagila  which  the  god  Lugal-du-azagga  founded  within  the 
deep; 

Babylon  (also)  was  built,  E-Sagila  was  completed. 

The  gods  and  the  spirits  of  the  earth  were  made  altogether. 

The  glorious  city,  the  seat  of  the  joy  of  their  hearts,  supremely 
they  proclaimed. 

Merodack  (Marduk)  bound  together  the  slime  before  the  water. 

Dust  he  made  and  he  poured  it  out  with  the  flood. 

The  gods  were  made  to  dwell  in  a  seat  of  joy  of  heart. 

He  created  mankind. 

The  god  Aruru,  the  seed  of  mankind,  they  made  with  him. 

He  made  the  beasts  of  the  field  and  the  living  creatures  of  the 
desert. 

He  made  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  and  set  (them)  in  (their) 
places 

Well  proclaimed  he  their  name. 

The  ussu-plant,  the  dittu-plant  of  the  marshland,  the  reed  and 
the  forest  he  made. 

He  made  the  verdure  of  the  plain ; 

The  lands,  the  marshes,  and  the  greensward  also; 

Oxen,  the  young  of  the  horse,  the  stallion,  the  mare,  the  sheep, 
the  locust; 

Meadows  and  forests  also. 

The  he-goat  and  the  gazelle  brought  forth  to  him.'" 
•  George  Smith :  Babylonia,  46. 


SOCIAI.  WFE  IN  MESOPOTAMIA.  287 

Babylonian  myths  often  took  the  form  of  epics.  The  epic 
of  Gilgamesh  was  popular.  Twelve  tablets  composed  it,  each 
corresponding  to  a  zodiacal  sign.  The  Deluge  Story  made  up 
the  eleventh  chapter.  Another  epic,  the  Descent  of  Ishtar  into 
Arallu,  or  Hades,  was  well  known.  Ishtar,  herself  a  goddess, 
mourned  a  departed  god,  her  consort,  so  greatly  that  she 
braved  the  terrors  of  the  underworld  to  find  him  and  to  carry 
him  water  from  the  fountain  of  life,  that  he  might  rejoin  her. 
This  was  the  earliest  form  of  a  myth  which  later  appeared  in 
many  lands. 

Astronomy  had  its  birth  in  astrology — the  so-called  science 
which  sought  to  discover  the  influences  of  the  planets  upon  the 
destinies  of  mankind.  This  science  was  firmly  believed  in  and 
strongly  supported  for  centuries  after  the  Christian  era,  and 
has  its  followers  even  today. 

Mathematics  had  a  similar  beginning.  Geometrical  figures 
were  used  for  augury.  In  arithmetic,  60  was  a  favorite  number 
for  computation,  and  the  division  of  a  circle  into  seconds, 
minutes  and  degrees,  dates  from  this  time. 

Geography  consisted  merely  of  lists  of  seas,  mountains, 
rivers,  waters,  nations,  and  cities  then  known.  Grammars  and 
dictionaries  were  plentiful  because  they  were  needed  even 
at  that  time  for  an  understanding  of  a  language,  already 
"  dead,"  but  still  the  language  of  literature. 

In  the  realm  of  history,  royal  inscriptions  may  be  included. 
With  the  rise  of  Assyria  these  came  to  be  more  complete. 
Fewer  set  phrases,  copied  by  each  king  from  most  ancient 
times,  were  used  and  more  information  was  included  concern- 
ing the  subject  at  hand.  For  example,  an  inscription  of  Tig- 
lathpileser  I.  (about  1100  b.  c.)  filled  eight  sides  of  a  clay 
cylinder,  and  contained  809  lines.  It  consisted  of  ( 1 )  an  invo- 
cation to  the  gods  who  had  given  him  power;  (2)  set  forth  his 
titles  and  summed  up  the  deeds  of  his  reign;  (3)  500  lines 
recounted  the  campaigns  of  his  first  year;  (4)  200  lines  de- 
scribed his  royal  hunts  and  his  temples  built  and  restored;  (5) 
finally  a  blessing  was  pronounced  upon  those  who  shall  honor 
his  deeds  and  a  curse  is  given  those  who  ignore  them. 

Both  nations  loved  justice  and  delighted  in  formality.  All 
kinds  of  agreements  were  put  into  writing  and  were  duly 


288  thS  worij)'s  progress. 

witnessed.  To  the  original  code  of  laws  in  Babylonia,  court 
decisions  were  added  and  together  comprised  the  later  law  of 
the  land.  All  important  cases  were  abstracted  and  the  decision 
of  the  judges  given  at  length  on  tablets  which  have  been  pre- 
served in  many  cases  with  the  signature  of  the  judge.  The 
judges  were  appointed  by  the  king.  Priests  were  eligible, 
but  others  often  served.  There  was  probably  a  court  in  the 
vicinity  of  every  important  temple,  which  has  given  a  general 
impression  that  the  priests  took  entire  charge  of  court  proceed- 
ings. 

Education  was  much  more  widely  diffused  in  Babylonia 
than  in  Assyria.  In  the  former  country  both  girls  and  boys 
seem  to  have  received  some  elementary  training  in  the  art  of 
reading  and  writing.  Schools  for  the  training  of  scribes  were 
maintained  in  coimection  with  each  of  the  great  temples. 
Tutors  were  doubtless  employed  in  families  of  the  nobility, 
but  little  is  known  of  the  training  of  the  young.  The  art  of 
writing  was  a  difficult  one  to  master  and  required  the  memoriz- 
ing of  a  large  number  of  symbols.  There  must  have  been 
much  truth  in  the  sentence  found  often  in  the  children's 
copy-books :  "  He  who  would  become  a  scribe  must  rise  with 
the  dawn."  In  the  school  of  Sippara  a  tablet  has  been  found 
which  is  supposed  to  have  been  either  a  medal  or  a  diploma 
given  by  the  school.  An  inscription  upon  it  reads :  "  Whoso- 
ever has  distinguished  himself  at  the  place  of  tablet  writing 
shall  shine  as  the  light.""  The  calling  of  the  scribe  was  an 
honorable  one  and  his  social  position  was  good. 

One  indication  that  people  of  the  better  classes  in  Baby- 
lonia could  write  is  to  be  found  in  the  number  of  personal  let- 
ters which  have  been  found.  These  are  not  written,  as  in 
Assyria,  in  one  uniform  handwriting,  but  show  many  varia- 
tions and  degrees  of  perfection. 

In  Assyria  writing  was  a  profession,  and  only  trades- 
people whose  business  compelled  them  to  understand  rudi- 
mentary writing,  public  officials  and  the  upper  classes  under' 
stood  the  art.  Public  scribes  wrote  many  private  letters,  much 
in  the  same  way  as  a  lawyer  of  today  might  draw  up  some 
document,  and  to  the  letter  so  written,  the  sender  affixed  his 
seal. 

Learning  was  limited  in  the  northern  kingdom  to  the 
favored  few.    Some  of  the  kings  were  book  collectors.    This 


SOCIAL  LIFE  IN  MESOPOTAMIA  289 

was  notably  true  of  Assurbanipal  who  sent  his  men  every- 
where to  gather  up  tablets  of  worth  and  antiquity. 

Letters  which  have  been  translated  help  to  bring  these 
early  days  before  us.  This  one  was  probably  sent  by  a  lover 
to  the  object  of  his  adoration: 

"  To  Bibea  say,  thus  saith  Gimil-Marduk :  May  Shamash 
and  Marduk  for  my  sake  preserve  thy  health  forever.  I  have 
sent  for  thy  health.  Tell  me  how  thou  art.  I  went  to  Babylon 
and  did  not  see  thee.  I  was  greatly  disappointed.  Send  me  the 
reason  of  thy  leaving,  and  let  me  be  cheered.  In  Marchevan 
do  thou  come.     For  my  sake  keep  well  always."* 

The  next  is  written  by  the  captain  of  a  river  barge  to 
King  Sennacherib,  concerning  the  transporting  of  colossal  bulls. 

"  To  the  king  my  lord,  thy  servant  Asshur-mukin  has  or- 
dered me  to  transport  in  boats  the  colossal  bulls  and  cherubim 
of  stone.  The  boats  are  not  strong  enough  and  are  not  ready. 
But  if  a  present  be  kindly  made  to  us,  we  will  see  that  they 
are  got  ready,  and  ascend  the  river." 

If  the  writer  of  the  third  failed  to  have  his  request  granted, 
it  could  scarcely  be  for  lack  of  persistence  in  making  it  known. 
It  is  a  letter  written  by  a  tenant  to  his  landlord,  and  belongs 
to  the  age  of  Abraham : 

"  To  my  lord  say,  thus  saith  Ibgatum  thy  servant :  As,  my 
lord,  thou  hast  heard,  the  enemy  has  carried  off  my  oxen. 
Never  before  have  I  sent  to  thee,  my  lord.  Now  I  have 
caused  a  letter  to  be  brought  to  thee,  my  lord,  Do  thou,  my 
lord,  send  me  one  young  cow.  I  will  weigh  out  and  send  five 
shekels  of  silver  to  thee,  my  lord.  My  lord,  what  thou  sayest, 
under  the  command  of  Marduk,  thy  protector,  what  pleases 
thee,  no  one  can  hinder  thee,  my  lord.  My  lord,  do  thou 
make  her  worth  the  five  shekels  of  silver  that  I  have  weighed 
out  and  sent  to  thee.  Do  thou,  my  lord,  treat  seriously  this 
request,  do  not  trifle  with  my  wish.  Let  my  lord  not  wonder 
at  this  request,  which  I  send  my  lord.  I  am  thy  servant.  I 
will  do  thy  will,  my  lord.  As  to  the  young  cow,  which  thou, 
my  lord,  dost  send,  let  her  be  on  credit,  and  either  to  Basu, 
or  wherever  is  convenient  .to  my  lord,  do  thou  send.  With 
Iliikisham,  my  brother,  let  the  young  cow  come.  And  I,  in 
order  that  my  lord  should  quickly  consent  and  send  the  young 

2  Johns :  Baby,  and  Assy.  Laws  Letters  and  Contracts,  336. 


290  THE  world's  progress. 

cow,  will  forthwith  weigh  out  and  send  fifteen  shekels  of  silver 
to  thee,  my  lord."' 

Sayce  has  suggested  that  the  five  shekels  of  silver  was  the 
amount  he  paid  annually  for  the  lease  of  his  farm,  and  that  he 
sent  it  at  this  time  to  further  influence  the  landlord  to  grant 
his  request.  Another  interpretation  has  been  put  upon  it  that 
he  sent  the  five  shekels  as  a  payment  down,  but  did  not  propose 
to  pay  the  full  price  until  he  saw  the  particular  cow  sent  him. 

Letters  were  enclosed  generally  in  an  envelope  of  clay. 
Powdered  clay  was  sprinkled  over  the  letter  to  prevent  its 
clinging  to  the  cover.  Because  the  envelope  of  clay  had  to  be 
broken  before  the  letter  was  read,  safety  and  privacy  was 
proven  by  the  unbroken  cover.  Again  the  tablet  upon  which 
the  letter  was  inscribed  was  sometimes  covered  with  a  linen 
wrapper  and  the  ends  held  by  a  seal — a  lump  of  clay  pressed 
down  with  the  Impression  of  the  seal  upon  it.  Few  of  these 
clay  or  linen  envelopes  have  been  found,  for  they  were  re- 
garded as  valueless  and  were  cast  aside.  A  very  fair  postal 
system  was  maintained  in  Mesopotamia. 

"  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  letters  were  treated  much  as 
ours  are  when  they  are  put  into  a  post-bag  to  which  the  seals 
of  the  post-office  are  attached.  There  were  excellent  roads  all 
over  Western  Asia,  with  post-stations  at  intervals  where  relays 
of  horses  could  be  procured.  Along  these  all  letters  to  or 
from  the  king  and  the  government  were  carried  by  royal  mes- 
sengers. It  is  probable  that  the  letters  of  private  individuals 
were  also  carried  by  the  same  hands.  .  .  .  The  civilized 
and  oriental  world  was  bound  together  by  a  network  of  postal 
routes  over  which  literary  intercourse  was  perpetually  passing. 
They  extended  from  the  Euphrates  to  the  Nile  and  from  the 
plateau  of  Asia  Minor  to  the  confines  of  Arabia.  These  routes 
followed  the  old  lines  of  war  and  trade  along  which  armies  had 
marched  and  merchantmen  had  traveled  for  unnumbered  gen- 
erations. The  Tell-el-Aniarna  tablets  show  that  letter-writing 
was  not  confined  to  Assyria  and  Babylonia  on  the  one  hand, 
or  to  Egypt  on  the  other.  Wherever  the  ancient  culture  of 
Babylonia  had  spread,  there  had  gone  with  it  not  only  the 
cuneiform  characters  and  the  use  of  clay  as  a  writing  material, 
but  the  art  of  letter-writing  as  well."  * 

»  Johns :  Baby,  and  Assy.  Laws,  Letters  and  Contracts,  334. 
*  Sayce :  Life  and  Customs  in  Baby,  and  Assy.,  228. 


SOCIAL  LIFE  IN  MESOPOTAMIA.  29I 

Fifteen  hundred  and  seventy-five  letters  alone  were  found 
in  the  library  of  Asshurbanipal,  unearthed  by  Layard.  This 
great  Assyrian  king  sent  scribes  throughout  Babylonia  to 
visit  ancient  temples  and  copy  tablets  on  which  were  preserved 
ancient  writings.  Some  thirty  thousand  were  collected  before 
his  death  and  they  treated  of  all  subjects  known  at  that  time. 
It  was  remarkable  that  when  this  splendid  palace  fell  into  ruins, 
many  of  these  tablets  remained  uninjured,  and,  having  laid 
undisturbed  for  twenty-five  hundred  years,  were  finally 
brought  to  light  some  fifty  years  ago  to  give  the  world  of  today 
their  old-time  messages. 

Deluge  Story — Column  III. 

"The  surface  of  the  land  like  fire  they  wasted ; 
they  destroyed  all  life  from  the  face  of  the  land ; 
to  battle  against  men  they  brought  the  waters. 
Brother  saw  not  his  brother ;  men  knew  not  one  another. 

In  heaven  the  gods  feared  the  flood  and 

hastened  to  ascend  to  the  heaven  of  Anu. 

The  gods,  like  dogs  in  the  kennel,  crouched  down  in  a  heap. 

Six  days  and  nights      ... 

the  wind,  the  flood,  and  the  storm  go  on  overwhelming. 

The  seventh  day,  when  it  approached,  the  flood  subsided,  the 

storm  which  had  fought  against  men  like  an  armed  host 

was  quieted.    The  sea  began  to  dry,  and  the  wind  and  the  flood 

ended. 
I  beheld  the  sea  and  uttered  a  cry, 
for  the  whole  of  mankind  was  turned  to  clay; 
like  trunks  the  corpses  floated. 

I  opened  the  window,  and  light  smote  upon  my  face; 
I  stopped  and  sat  down;  I  wept; 
over  my  face  flowed  my  tears. 
I  beheld  a  shore  beyond  the  sea ; 
a  district  rose  twelve  times  distant. 
On  the  mountain  of  Nizir  the  ship  grounded; 
the  mountain  of  Nizir  stopped  the  ship,  and  it  was  not  able  to 

pass  over  it 


292  THS  WORI^D'S   progress. 

The  first  day,  the  second  day,  the  mountain  of  Nizir  stopped  tTie 

ship. 
The  third  day,  the  fotirth  day,  the  mountain  of  Nizir  stopped  the 

ship. 
The  fifth  day,  the  sixth  day,  the  mountain  of  Nizir  stopped  the 

ship. 
The  seventh  day  when  it  approached 

I  sent  forth  a  dove,  and  it  left.    The  dove  went  in  and  returned 
and  found  no  resting  place,  and  it  came  back. 
Then  I  sent  forth  a  swallow,  and  it  left.  The  swallow  went  and 

returned, 
and  found  no  resting  place,  and  it  came  back. 
I  sent  forth  a  raven,  and  it  left. 

The  raven  went,  and  saw  the  going  down  of  the  waters,  and 
it  approached,  it  waded,  it  croaked;  it  did  not  return. 
I  sent  the  animals  to  the  four  winds;  I  sacrificed  a  sacrifice 
I  built  an  altar  on  the  peak  of  the  mountain. 
I  sent  vessels    ...    by  sevens ; 
underneath  them  I  spread  reeds,  cedar-wood,  and  herbs. 
The  gods  smelt  the  savour;  the  gods  smelt  the  good  savour; 
the  gods  gathered  like  flies  over  the  sacrifices. 
Thereupon  the  great  goddess  at  her  approach 
lifted  up  the  mighty  bow  which  Anu  had  created  according  to 
his  wishes. 
These  gods,  by  my  necklace,  never  will  I  forget.'* 


ISHTAR.      FROM  AN  ASSYRIAN  CYLINDER. 


iOCIAI,  UFS  IN  MESOPOTAMIA.  293 

CHAPTER  XIII. 
CI.OTHING. 

The  Babylonians  and  Assyrians  were  very  fond  of  dress. 
There  were  three  essentials  to  Mesopotamian  dress,  and  acces- 
sories depended  upon  the  taste  and  purse  of  the  wearer.  A 
head-dress,  a  tunic  and  a  robe  were  the  main  features  of  one's 
apparel,  although  all  were  not  of  necessity  worn  by  the  lower 
classes.  The  head-dress  was  frequently  of  felt  and  was  some 
times  quilted;  the  tunic  was  generally  made  of  linen  when 
worn  in  Babylonia  and  of  wool  in  Assyria;  the  robe  was 
long,  falling  to  the  ankles;  it  was  often  of  wool  and  was  fin- 
ished with  a  deep  fringe.  The  tunic  and  some  times  the  robe 
as  well  were  belted  at  the  waist  by  a  wide  and  elaborate 
girdle.  Women's  garments  were  similar  to  those  worn  by 
men,  but  their  robes  fell  in  more  ample  folds.  Naturally 
fashions  changed  and  a  garment  worn  in  the  days  of  the 
Semitic  invasion  would  have  appeared  odd  and  out  of  date 
in  the  age  of  Asshurbanipal. 

Early  portraits  of  kings  show  them  clad  in  thick  quilted 
skirts  falling  to  the  ankles,  while  quilted  turbans  covered  their 
heads.  Later  robes  took  the  place  of  the  skirt.  Parasols 
were  carried  in  Babylonia  as  protection  against  the  heat,  but 
in  Assyria  they  gradually  became  the  privilege  of  the  royal 
family.  In  portraits  of  later  Assyrian  kings,  the  parasol 
is  frequently  shown.  This  custom  may  have  been  borrowed 
from  Persia. 

Ordinarily  no  head-dress  was  worn  by  the  lower  classes 
in  Babylonia  unless,  perhaps,  to  denote  some  special  calling. 
Certain  musicians  appear  with  caps.  The  devotees  of  fashion 
probably  donned  head-dresses  at  pleasure. 

Jewelry  was  popular  with  both  men  and  women,  even  the 
poor  being  adorned  with  necklaces,  bracelets,  anklets.  Shoes 
and  sandals  were  seldom  worn  in  the  southern  kingdom.  In 
Assyria,  naturally  a  colder  climate  brought  about  some  varia- 
tions of  dress.  High  boots  and  leather  breeches  were  worn  by 
the  soldiers  of  later  periods;  shoes  were  needed  to  protect 


294  th^  world's  progress. 

the  feet  from  frosty  ground,  and  cloaks  were  required  in 
addition  to  the  usual  robe.    • 

Embroidered  and  imported  robes,  smart  hats  and  other 
details  of  wearing  apparel  were  characteristic  of  later  periods 
when  wealth  and  leisure  gave  opportunity  for  such  indulgen- 
ces. Certain  it  is  that  the  simple  tunic  sufficed  in  early  days, 
and  rank  was  indicated  by  its  greater  or  abbreviated  length. 

The  ancient  Chaldeans  or  Sumerians  always  shaved  their 
heads  and  faces.  Influenced  by  this  custom,  the  Babylonians 
did  not  wear  long  beards.  The  Assyrians,  more  purely  Sem- 
itic, wore  long  ones  and  had  hair  dressers  largely  in  the  place 
of  barbers,  who  curled  both  their  beards  and  hair. 

A  word  should  be  said  of  the  costumes  of  the  priests.  They 
may  always  be  distinguished  on  the  monuments  by  their  long, 
flounced  robes,  reaching  nearly  to  the  ground.  Because  the 
goat  was  an  animal  of  special  sanctity,  a  goat-skin  was  in- 
variably thrown  over  the  shoulder — quite  as  the  Egyptian 
priest  wore  the  skin  of  a  leopard. 

In  connection  with  the  jewelry  worn  by  men,  we  may  con- 
sider the  little  cylinders  which  served  as  seals.  In  Babylonia, 
because  of  the  scarcity  of  stone,  even  tiny  pebbles  were  valued, 
and  it  came  to  be  the  custom  to  have  these  cut  in  cylindrical 
shapes  by  expert  stone-cutters.  An  opening  was  made  through- 
out their  length  to  allow  a  cord  or  chain  to  pass  through.  This 
attached  the  cylinder  to  the  owner's  wrist.  Upon  the  round 
surface  of  the  cylinder  were  engraved  various  designs  and 
figures,  and  a  few  words  explaining  the  identity  of  the  wearer, 
name  of  his  father  and  other  noteworthy  facts  regarding  him. 
His  name  was  affixed,  and  with  this  he  stamped  his  letters  and 
all  documents.  To  be  without  a  cylinder  was  almost  as  in- 
convenient as  to  be  without  a  name.  The  very  poor,  who  could 
not  afford  such  a  seal,  were  obliged  to  make  a  nail-mark  in 
the  soft  clay,  while  some  one  wrote  the  name  of  the  person 
to  whom  that  particular  mark  belonged.  The  possessor  of 
a  cylinder  had  only  to  pass  it  over  the  clay  and  his  signature 
was  made.  Many  of  these  little  cylinders  have  been  recovered, 
and  some  lack  the  name  of  an  owner,  showing  that  they  had 
been  made  by  a  gem-cutter,  but  had  not  yet  found  a  buyer. 


social  life  in  mesopotamia.  295 

Food. 

Food  was  easily  obtained  in  Mesopotamia,  and  consisted 
mainly  of  grains  and  dried  fish.  Cereals  were  made  into  little 
cakes  and  seasoned  with  dates  or  some  other  fruit.  Fish 
and  fowl  were  plentiful;  many  kinds  of  fruits  and  vegetables 
were  grown,  and  wine  and  beer  were  universally  used.  Lack- 
ing the  tomb-pictures  of  Egypt,  we  know  less  about  the  food 
and  its  preparation  in  the  Euphrates  valley. 

Sports  and  Pastimes. 

For  our  knowledge  of  ancient  Babylonian  and  Assyrian 
life,  we  are  dependent  largely  upon  scenes  depicted  on  palace 
walls,  especially  the  walls  of  royal  dwellings.  These  scenes 
commemorate  the  doings  of  the  king  particularly,  and  where 
laborers,  slaves  and  the  common  people  are  shown  at  all,  they 
are  seen  at  work,  building  palaces  and  temples,  marching  to 
battle,  swelling  the  triumphal  processions,  or  they  are  cultivat- 
ing the  fields,  storing  away  the  grain — all  to  the  glory  of 
the  realm  and  consequently  to  the  king.  Naturally  then,  we 
know  little  about  the  pastimes  of  the  masses.  They  no  doubt 
thronged  the  streets  on  festivals,  for  then  they  were  free 
from  work.  Even  labor  on  royal  palaces — always  pushed  with 
all  possible  speed — was  then  suspended.  Every  day  in  the 
year  had  its  own  significance,  but  five  days  each  month  were 
of  particular  importance,  being  sacred  to  the  gods,  and  were 
duly  observed.  Worship  and  merry-making  were  in  a  measure 
mingled.  Other  days  for  popular  observance  were  those  in 
which  the  king  and  the  army  returned  from  successful  wars. 
A  triumphal  procession  passed  slowly  through  the  streets  on 
its  way  to  the  temple,  where  thanksgiving  was  rendered  the 
gods  who  had  made  victory  possible.  Such  occasions  were 
always  holidays,  and  the  people  in  gay  attire,  gathered  to  wit- 
ness the  home-coming  of  their  sovereign,  and  to  gaze  in  wonder 
at  the  booty  and  the  captives. 

Two  recreations  pictured  on  the  palace  walls  were  enjoyed 
only  by  the  nobles  and  the  wealthy  classes — the  hunt  and  the 
banquet.  In  modern  times,  when  those  in  high  position  have 
occasionally  laid  down  important  matters  for  a  brief  while  to 
seek  recreation  in  hunting,  fishing  and  out  of  door  life,  they 


296  TH^  world's   progress. 

have  taken  opportunity  to  throw  off  much  of  the  convention- 
ality surrounding  their  every-day  life  and  have  found  some 
diversion  in  "  roughing  it," — in  sharing  the  varying  fortune 
likely  to  befall  those  who  leave  the  certain  comforts  of  home 
for  the  uncertain  conditions  to  be  met  away  from  the  centers 
of  civilization.  Such  was  not  at  all  the  case  with  the  kings 
of  Assyria  when  they  left  their  capitals  to  hunt  the  lion  in 
its  distant  jungles  and  marshes.  In  the  palace  of  Sennacherib 
and  Asshurbanipal,  hunts  have  been  depicted  throughout  their 
progress.  We  may  see  the  king  marching  out  of  the  city  in 
his  state  chariot,  his  charioteer  at  his  side,  while  behind  him 
an  attendant  holds  high  an  embroidered  parasol  over  his 
kingly  head  to  protect  him  from  the  rays  of  the  sun.  Nobles 
accompany  him  on  horses  and  they,  together  with  the  guards 
and  retinue  of  servants,  make  up  a  small  army.  Goats  and 
cattle  are  driven  along,  that  his  majesty  and  his  nobles  may 
have  fresh  milk  and  meat  throughout  their  absence;  a  sumptu- 
ous tent  shelters  the  king  when  the  procession  stops  for  the 
night,  while  each  noble  tries  to  pitch  his  tent  near  the  more 
splendid  one  of  his  king.  Maspero  has  graphically  described 
the  hunt.  Some  wild  oxen  have  been  discovered,  and  the 
king  gives  chase: 

"  In  less  time  than  we  can  speak,  three  of  the  bulls  are 
rolling  on  the  ground,  pierced  with  several  arrows;  the  four 
others  but  slightly  wounded,  turn  round  and  gallop  towards 
the  river.  Asshurbanipal  follows  the  largest  of  them,  which 
he  is  almost  sure  is  wounded  in  the  shoulder ;  then  gradually  he 
overtakes  it,  skillfully  drives  his  chariot  beside  it  without  check- 
ing speed,  and  laying  aside  his  bow,  grasps  one  of  the  poig- 
nards  he  wears  in  his  belt.  With  one  hand  he  seizes  one  of  the 
animal's  horns,  with  the  other  he  plunges  his  weapon  into  his 
neck ;  the  short,  wide  blade  divides  the  spine,  between  the  neck 
and  shoulder,  the  bull  falls  like  a  stone.  A  flight  of  arrows 
arrests  the  fugitives  before  they  can  reach  the  water ;  the  whole 
herd  is  killed,  except  the  old  bull  that  escaped  at  first. 

"  The  return  to  the  camp  is  a  triumphal  march.  As  soon 
as  the  sentinels  signal  the  arrival  of  the  party,  soldiers,  slaves, 
women,  all  who  are  not  bound  by  etiquette  or  military  duty, 
hurry  to  meet  it,  and  form  two  lines,  watching  the  procession. 
The  sight  of  the  seven  bulls,  each  carried  by  five  or  six  men, 


SOCIAL   LIFE   IN    MESOPOTAMIA.  297 

almost  causes  them  to  forget  the  respect  due  to  royalty.  They 
exclaim  upon  the  size  of  the  animals,  the  strength  of  their 
horns,  the  savage  aspect  given  by  their  manes;  they  praise 
their  master's  skill,  and  loudly  thank  the  gods  who  have 
favored  him  with  such  rare  and  terrible  game.  Asshurbanipal 
has  left  his  chariot  in  front  of  his  tent,  and  now  prepares  to 
return  thanks  for  his  success  to  the  lord  Asshur  and  the  lady 
Ishtar.  Two  priests  with  their  harps  are  waiting  to  commence 
the  hymns  of  praise.  The  bearers  place  the,  oxen  side  by  side 
in  a  single  line.  The  king,  accompanied  by  his  fly-flap  and 
sunshade-bearers,  stands  on  the  right,  the  bow  in  his  left  hand. 
He  takes  the  cup  full  of  sacramental  wine,  which  the  vizier 
presents  to  him,  touches  it  with  his  lips,  then  partly  empties 
it  over  the  victims  whilst  the  musicians  play.  The  same  even- 
ing a  messenger  will  start  for  Nineveh  to  have  the  new  exploit 
graven  upon  stone.  The  picture  will  portray  the  departure, 
the  chase,  the  death,  the  solemn  entry,  and  an  inscription 
placed  above  the  last  scene  will  tell  posterity  the  name  of  the 
victor.  *  I,  Asshurbanipal,  king  of  multitudes,  king  of  Assyria, 
whose  power  is  secured  by  Asshur  and  Beltis,  I  have  killed 
seven  oxen;  I  have  strung  the  mighty  bow  of  Ishtar,  queen 
of  battles,  against  them,  I  have  made  an  offering  over  them' 
and  poured  wine  upon  them.' 

"  On  the  following  day  the  dogs  rouse  three  lions  from 
their  jungle.  These  are  killed  after  having  made  a  desperate 
resistance.  *  The  three  bodies  are  carried  back  to  the  camp, 
then  presented  to  Ishtar  with  the  same  ceremonies  that  had 
celebrated  the  triumph  over  the  wild  bulls,  and  the  sculptors 
were  ordered  to  represent  the  hand-to-hand  struggle  of  the 
sovereign  and  his  savage  foe.  *  I,  Asshurbanipal,  king  of  peo- 
ples, king  of  Assyria,  alone  on  foot,  in  my  majesty,  I  seized 
a  lion  of  the  desert  by  the  ear;  and  by  the  mercy  of  Asshur 
and  Ishtar,  queen  of  battles,  I  pierced  its  loins  with  my  lance, 
with  mine  own  hands.'  "* 

A  banquet  sometimes  celebrated  the  return  from  a  fine 
and  successful  hunt,  but  it  faded  into  insignificance  when 
compared  with  the  one  held  after  the  return  from  a  war  of 
pillage  and  conquest.  The  entire  population  of  the  capital 
became  temporary  guests  of  the  king. 

»Maspero:  Ancient  Egypt  and  Assj-ria,  260. 


jg^  THE  worIvD's  progress. 

"  After  the  procession,  the  day  is  passed  in  a  perfect  frenzy 
of  joy  by  the  whole  nation.  It  is  customary  for  all  the  in- 
habitants of  the  city,  slaves  and  freemen,  to  eat  and  drink 
at  the  king's  expense  during  the  festival ;  this  is  a  method  of 
giving  them  a  share  of  the  booty.  For  seven  days  the  palace 
gates  are  open  to  all  comers.  Many  colored  stuffs  suspended 
over  the  walls  by  means  of  ropes  have  transformed  the  courts 
into  immense  banqueting  halls.  The  crowd  is  coming  and 
going  from  morning  till  night;  the  people  install  themselves 
upon  state-seats  and  ask  for  whatever  they  like;  the  slaves 
have  orders  to  give  them  anything  they  wish  for,  and  to  bring 
each  person  whatever  he  desires  as  many  times  as  he  asks 
for  it.  Women  and  children  are  admitted  to  these  festivals 
as  well  as  men.  The  soldiers  kept  in  barracks  by  their  duty 
are  not  forgotten;  the  king  sends  them  the  food  and  wine 
they  cannot  fetch  for  themselves  in  so  great  profusion  that 
they  have  nothing  to  regret.  The  loaves  disappear  by  thou- 
sands, by  thousands  also  the  oxen,  sheep,  goats,  and  birds 
of  all  kinds  are  sacrificed  to  satisfy  the  public  appetite.  But 
what  they  eat  is  nothing  to  what  they  drink.  The  Assyrian 
is  sober  in  ordinary  life,  but  he  does  not  know  how  to  stop 
if  he  once  allows  himself  any  excess.  Wines  of  Assyria  and 
Chaldea,  wines  from  Elam,  wines  from  Syria  and  Phoenicia, 
wines  from  Egypt,  the  skins  are  emptied  as  soon  as  opened, 
without  visibly  quenching  the  universal  thirst.  After  one  or 
two  days  no  brain  is  strong  enough  to  resist  it,  and  Nineveh 
presents  the  extraordinary  spectacle  of  a  whole  city  in  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  intoxication ;  when  the  festival  is  over,  several 
days  are  required  before  it  resumes  its  usual  aspect. 

Whilst  the  people  are  becoming  tipsy  outside,  Asshurbani- 
pal  feasts  the  leading  chiefs  and  the  ministers  of  state  within 
the  palace.  Unlike  the  common  people,  the  nobles  eat  but 
little,  so  that  few  dishes  of  meat  are  set  before  them,  but 
cakes  and  fruits  of  different  kinds,  grapes,  dates,  apples,  pears, 
and  figs  are  brought  in  continual  relays,  by  long  lines  of  slaves. 
On  the  other  hand,  they  drink  a  great  deal — with  more  re- 
finement, perhaps,  than  the  common  people,  but  with  equal 
avidity. 

The  only  persons  who  do  not  drink,  or  who  drink  little, 
through  the  necessity  of  retaining  their  sobriety,  are  the  guards. 


SOCIAI.   UFE   IN    MESOPOTAMIA. 


299 


the  servants  and  the  musicians.  No  festival  is  complete  with- 
out the  presence  of  singers,  and  the  king's  musicians  conscien- 
tiously perform  their  finest  melodies.  Perhaps  some  one 
listened  to  them  at  the  beginning  of  the  feast,  but  now  that 
the  great  silver  bowls  have  been  filled  and  emptied  several 
times,  their  music  is  literally  wasted.  They  may  sing  out  of 
tune,  or  remain  silent,  just  as  they  please,  no  one  will  listen 
or  care. 

The  court  poet  has  placed  the  recital  of  the  hero's  life  and 
exploits,  from  the  hour  of  his  birth  until  the  day  of  his  tri- 
umph, in  his  own  mouth.     He  concluded  by  saying: 

"  *  I  am  a  strong  warrior,  beloved  of  Asshur  and  Ishtar, 
the  child  of  royalty.  The  gods  have  been  gracious  to  me. 
The  wheat  has  grown  to  five  cubits,  and  its  ears  of  corn  are 
always  one  cubit  long;  during  my  reign,  abundance  has  over- 
flowed; during  all  the  years  of  my  reign,  the  divine  blessing 
has  been  poured  out  upon  me  like  a  heavy  dew.  The  gods 
have  raised  me  higher  than  any  king  ever  ascended  before  me. 
Whilst  Asshur  and  Ishtar  support  me,  who  can  prevail  against 
me?  My  power  is  everlastingly  founded  by  their  hands,, 
the  duration  of  my  race  is  established;  they  shall  reign  for 
many  days,  and  for  everlasting  years.'  "* 


*  Maspero ;  Ancient  Egypt  and  Assyria,  3G8,  ff. 


ASSYRIAN  KING  IN   ROYAL  ROBES. 


300  rut  world's  progress. 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
Architecture  and  Decoration. 

Architecture  is  evolved  from  religion  as  well  as  from  nature. 
Generally  speaking,  we  find  temples  of  worship  to  be  the  first 
buildings  erected  by  every  people. 

Because  the  Babylonians  were  limited  by  lack  of  other  ma- 
terial to  sun  or  kiln-dried  brick,  and  the  Assyrians,  devoid  of 
originality,  limited  themselves  to  the  same  baked  clay,  we 
would  scarcely  expect  to  find  pleasing  or  artistic  buildings  in 
either  state.  Even  in  the  dwellings  of  rich  and  poor,  the 
great  difference  was  one  of  size.  It  was  impossible  to  make  a 
clay  wall  very  ornate,  but  the  wealthy  could  have  more  walls 
and  broader  expanse  of  bricks.  Size,  or  hugeness,  then,  sig- 
nified superiority.  It  naturally  followed  that  the  temple,  the 
noblest  structure  attempted  by  the  Mesopotamians,  was  espe- 
cially large,  being  called  by  a  word  which  meant  "  mountain 
house." 

Large  tracts  of  land  were  dedicated  to  the  temples.  Hav- 
ing been  consecrated  by  libations  of  wine,  oil  and  honey,  the 
temple  proper,  consisting  of  halls  or  rooms  surrounding  an 
inner  court,  was  first  erected.  Near  this  arose  the  ziggurat 
or  tower,  and  many  smaller  buildings,  not  unlike  private 
dwellings.  These  served  as  residences  for  the  priests,  for  the 
temple  school,  store-houses  for  the  sacred  oil  and  other  articles 
pertaining  to  worship,  and  many  other  purposes.  The  entire 
area  was  enclosed  by  a  wall,  and  was  ordinarily  remote  from 
the  noises  of  the  city.  Within  this  large  enclosure  other  walls 
surrounded  buildings  of  special  sanctity  and  importance. 
Within  the  temple  proper  was  an  inner  room  where  the  statue 
of  the  god  was  kept.  This  corresponded  to  the  "holy  of 
holies  "  in  a  Jewish  synagogue,  and  was  entered  only  by  the 
priest  or  king. 

The  ziggurat  or  mountain  house — for  this  alone  was  mas- 
sive and  high — ^built  as  symbolic  of  the  mountain  form  which 
the  whole  earth  was  supposed  to  assume,  was  a  tower,  some 
times  three,  some  times  five  or  even  seven  stories  high.    The 


SOCIAI.   UFE   IN    MESOPOTAMIA.  3OI 

t^emains  of  one  of  these  ziggurats  was  discovered  by  Dr.  Peters 
and  his  explorers  at  Nippur,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been 
built  as  early  as  2700  b.  c. 

The  ziggurat  at  Borsippa  had  a  base  of  earthwork  272 
feet  on  each  side,  and  was  26  feet  high.  Above  this  founda- 
tion arose  two  stories,  26  feet  in  height,  each  42  feet  less  on 
a  side  than  the  story  below.  Four  stories,  each  15  feet  high, 
followed,  decreasing  42  feet  on  a  side  like  the  lower  ones, 
and  the  last,  or  seventh,  story,  was  just  29  feet  square.  Stair- 
ways wound  around  the  outside  of  the  tower,  and  it  was 
thought  pleasing  to  the  gods  that  worshippers  should  ascend 
to  the  top.  Each  story  was  sacred  to  some  particular  god 
whose  statue  it  contained  while  the  shrine  of  the  most  im- 
portant deity  was  placed  on  top.  Sometimes  each  story  was 
painted  a  different  color. 

The  mass  of  worshippers,  however,  assembled  at  the  temple 
rather  than  the  tower,  and  offerings  were  made  at  the  base 
of  the  ziggurat  instead  of  at  the  top. 

It  was  the  ambition  of  the  kings  that  the  inner  walls  of 
their  buildings,  whether  temples  or  palaces,  should  *'  shine 
like  the  sunlight,"  and  to  this  end  gold,  silver  and  precious 
stones  lent  their  gleams  and  glows  to  mural  decorations. 

Next  in  importance  to  the  temples  were  royal  palaces, 
and  in  Assyria,  where  religion  was  given  less  prominence,  the 
temple  was  a  mere  adjunct  of  the  palace.  Here  again,  a  large 
inner  court  was  surrounded  by  halls  and  rooms.  The  palace 
court  was  paved  and  decorated  and  upon  the  inner  walls  of 
the  palace  the  skill  of  the  artist  was  expended.  The  floors 
were  made  of  tiles,  and  these  followed  ingenious  patterns. 
Sometimes  the  floors  were  formed  of  bricks  or  tablets  covered 
with  inscriptions  deeply  cut;  then  molten  metal — brass  or 
bronze — was  poured  over  the  whole,  and  filling  the  depressions, 
caused  the  entire  floor  to  look  like  a  curious  and  intricate 
design. 

It  was  comparatively  easy  to  lay  floors  and  raise  walls  of 
bricks,  but  it  was  quite  another  thing  to  make  roofs  of  them. 
The  longest  rafters  were  obtained  from  the  cedars  of  Lebanon 
and  these  ranged  from  30  to  40  feet  in  length.  This  prac- 
tically determined  the  width  of  the  halls  and  rooms,  which 
seem  to  have  been  even  four  times  their  width  in  length. 

\— 21 


302  THE   WORI,D*S   PROGRESS. 

The  monotony  of  the  inner  walls  was  relieved  by  alabaster 
reaching  around  the  halls  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  above  the 
floors,  and  held  in  place  by  strong  iron  clamps.  On  this 
soft,  yielding  substance  were  portrayed  scenes  in  the  life  and 
exploits  of  the  king — his  campaigns,  hunts,  works  of  peace, 
and  acts  of  worship.  These  were  executed  in  bas-relief  after 
the  slabs  were  fitted  into  place.  Above  them  extended  a  frieze 
perhaps  three  feet  in  width,  made  of  tiles  painted  in  delicate 
colors  and  laid  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  a  picture  or  design. 
We  miss  the  gaudy  colors  so  popular  in  Egypt.  It  has  been 
well  said  that  the  Assyrian  artist  sought  to  please  by  the  ele- 
gance of  his  forms  and  the  harmony  of  his  hues — not  to 
startle  by  a  display  of  bright  and  strongly  contrasted  colors. 
The  palace  of  Sennacherib,  second  only  to  the  temple  of  Kar- 
nak  in  grandeur — covered  an  area  of  eight  acres,  and  con- 
tained some  eighty  apartments.  The  palace  of  Sargon  at  Khors- 
abad  had  no  less  than  209  rooms.  Of  the  scenes  depicted 
on  the  slabs  of  alabaster  in  the  state  apartments  Rawlinson 
writes  at  length :  "  The  most  striking  characteristic  of  Sen- 
nacherib's ornamentation  is  its  strong  and  marked  realism. 
Mountains,  rocks,  trees,  roads,  rivers,  lakes  were  regularly 
portrayed,  an  attempt  being  made  to  represent  the  locality, 
whatever  it  might  be,  as  truthfully  as  the  artist's  skill  and  the 
character  of  his  material  rendered  possible.  The  species  of 
trees  is  distinguished,  gardens,  fields,  ponds,  reeds,  are  care- 
fully represented ;  wild  animals  are  introduced,  as  stags,  boars 
and  antelopes;  birds  fly  from  tree  to  tree,  or  stand  over  their 
nests,  feeding  the  young  who  stretch  up  to  them ;  fish  disport 
themselves  in  the  water;  fishermen  ply  their  craft;  boatmen 
and  agricultural  laborers  pursue  their  avocations;  the  scene 
is,  as  it  were,  photographed,  with  all  its  features. 

"  In  the  same  spirit  of  realism,  Sennacherib  chooses  for 
artistic  representation  scenes  of  a  commonplace  and  everyday 
character.  The  trains  of  attendants  who  daily  enter  his  pal- 
ace with  game  and  locust  for  his  dinner,  and  cakes  and  fruit 
for  his  dessert,  appear  on  the  walls  of  the  passages  exactly  as 
they  walked  through  his  courts  bearing  the  delicacies  in  which 
he  delighted.  Elsewhere  he  puts  before  us  the  entire  process  of 
carving  and  transporting  a  colossal  bull,  from  the  first  removal 
of  the  huge  stone  in  its  rough  state  from  the  quarry  to  its  final 
elevation  on  a  palace  mound,  as  part  of  the  great  gateway  of  a 


SOCIAIv   LIFE   IN    MESOPOTAMIA.  303 

royal  residence.  We  see  the  trackers  dragging  the  rough  block, 
supported  on  a  low  flat-bottomed  boat,  along  the  course  of  a 
river,  disposed  in  gangs,  each  gang  having  a  costume  of  its 
own  which  probably  marked  its  nation,  under  taskmasters 
armed  with  staves,  who  urged  on  the  labor  with  blows.  The 
whole  scene  must  be  represented,  and  so  the  trackers  are  there, 
to  the  number  of  three  hundred,  each  delineated  with  as  much 
care  as  if  he  were  not  the  exact  image  of  ninety-nine  others. 
We  then  observe  the  block  transferred  to  land,  and  carved  into 
the  rough  semblance  of  a  bull,  in  which  form  it  is  placed  on 
a  rude  sledge  and  conveyed  along  level  land  by  gangs  of  la- 
borers, arranged  nearly  as  before,  to  the  foot  of  the  mound  at 
whose  top  it  has  to  be  placed.  The  construction  of  the  mound 
is  elaborately  represented.  Brickmakers  are  seen  moulding  the 
bricks  at  its  base,  while  workmen  with  baskets  at  their  backs, 
full  of  earth,  brick,  stone,  or  rubbish  toil  up  the  ascent — for  the 
mound  is  already  half  raised — and  empty  their  burdens  out 
upon  the  summit.  The  bull,  still  lying  on  its  sledge,  is  then 
drawn  up  an  inclined  plane  to  the  top  by  four  gangs  of  laborers, 
in  the  presence  of  the  monarch  and  his  attendants.  After  this 
the  carving  is  completed,  and  the  colossus,  having  been  raised 
into  an  upright  position,  is  conveyed  along  the  surface  of  the 
platform  to  the  exact  site  which  it  is  to  occupy." 

Guarding  the  portals  of  the  palaces  stood  the  winged  bulls 
and  lions,  in  pairs.  They  were  thought  to  ward  off  demons  and 
to  inspire  awe  in  those  who  beheld  them.  They  were  formed 
with  five  legs,  in  order  that  the  spectator,  whether  he  viewed 
them  from  the  front  or  side,  might  still  see  the  usual  four. 
Speaking  of  these  great  stone  creatures,  Layard  wrote :  "  I 
used  to  contemplate  for  hours  these  mysterious  emblems,  and 
muse  over  their  intent  and  history.  What  more  noble  forms 
could  have  ushered  the  people  into  the  temple  of  their  gods? 
What  more  sublime  images  could  have  been  borrowed  from 
nature  by  men  who  sought,  unaided  by  the  light  of  revealed 
religion,  to  embody  their  conception  of  the  wisdom,  power  and 
ubiquity  of  a  Supreme  Being  ?  They  could  find  no  better  type 
of  intellect  and  knowledge  than  the  head  of  a  man ;  of  strength, 
than  the  body  of  a  lion ;  of  rapidity  of  motion  than  the  wings 
of  a  bird.  These  winged  human-headed  lions  were  not  idle 
creations,  the  offspring  of  mere  fancy ;  their  meaning  was  writ- 


304  THB  wori^d's  progress. 

ten  upon  them.  They  had  awed  and  instructed  races  which 
flourished  three  thousand  years  ago.  Through  the  portals 
which  they  guarded,  kings,  priests,  and  warriors  had  borne 
sacrifices  to  their  altars  long  before  the  wisdom  of  the  East 
had  penetrated  to  Greece,  and  furnished  its  mythology  with 
symbols  long  recognized  by  the  Assyrian  votaries. 

"  They  may  have  been  buried,  and  their  existence  may  have 
been  unknown  before  the  foundation  of  the  Eternal  City.  For 
twenty-five  centuries  they  had  been  hidden  from  the  eye  of 
man,  and  they  now  stood  forth  once  more  in  their  ancient 
majesty.  But  how  changed  was  the  scene  around  them !  The 
luxury  and  civilization  of  a  mighty  nation  had  given  place  to 
the  wretchedness  and  ignorance  of  a  few  half -barbarous  tribes. 
The  wealth  of  temples  and  the  riches  of  the  great  cities  had 
been  succeeded  by  ruins  and  shapeless  heaps  of  earth.  Above 
the  spacious  hall  in  which  they  stood  the  plow  had  passed 
and  the  corn  now  waved.  Egypt  has  monuments  no  less  an- 
cient and  no  less  wonderful,  but  they  have  stood  forth  for 
ages  to  testify  her  early  power  and  renown,  while  these  before 
me  had  but  now  appeared  to  bear  witness,  in  the  words  of  the 
prophet,  that  once  *  the  Assyrian  was  a  cedar  in  Lebanon  with 
fair  branches.  .  .  .  Now  is  Nineveh  desolate  and  dry 
like  a  wilderness,  and  flocks  lie  down  in  the  midst  of  her.'  " 

Babylon  was  probably  the  most  beautiful  city  of  antiquity. 
Nebuchadnezzar  II.  surrounded  the  capital  with  walls  of  such 
solidity  that  it  is  supposed  the  city  could  never  have  been  taken 
by  assault.  His  father  began  the  fortifications,  and  it  was  left 
for  the  greatest  Babylonian  king  to  complete  them  and  make 
them  even  more  secure.  Between  the  outer  and  inner  walls, 
wide  distances  were  left.  Here  trees  and  gardens  were  planted. 
This  space  was  provided  for  nearby  villagers  in  times  of  siege, 
and  it  was  also  intended  that  here  fields  of  grain  might  be 
grown  to  sustain  the  population  under  such  trying  conditions. 

Herodotus  described  these  walls:  "And  here  I  may  not 
omit  to  tell  the  use  to  which  the  mould  dug  out  of  the  great 
moat  was  turned,  nor  the  manner  wherein  the  wall  was 
wrought.  As  fast  as  they  dug  the  moat,  the  soil  which  they 
got  from  the  cutting  was  made  into  bricks,  and  when  a  suffi- 
cient number  were  completed,  they  baked  the  bricks  in  kilns. 
Then  they  set  to  building  and  began  with  bricking  the  borders 


SOCIAI.  UFE  IN    MESOPOTAMIA.  305 

of  the  moat,  after  which  they  proceeded  to  construct  the  wall 
itself,  using  throughout  for  their  cement  hot  bitumen,  and  in- 
terposed a  layer  of  wattled  reeds  at  every  thirtieth  course  of 
the  bricks."  According  to  this  writer  the  outer  wall  was 
14  miles  in  circumference,  93  feet  thick,  and  370  feet  in  height, 
but  it  is  supposed  that  he  included  the  city  of  Borsippa,  across 
the  river,  within  the  length  of  wall,  and  no  doubt  he  com- 
puted the  height  to  include  the  lofty  towers  built  at  intervals 
along  the  wall,  to  give  sentinels  a  wide  outlook  over  the  coun- 
try. These  walls  the  Greeks  included  among  the  wonders  of 
the  world,  and  probably  ancient  warfare  could  not  have  de- 
stroyed them. 

The  Hanging  Gardens  of  this  great  city  were  also  enumer- 
ated among  the  world's  wonders.  These  are  said  to  have  been 
built  by  Nebuchadnezzar  for  his  Median  queen,  who  wearied 
of  the  dull,  flat  country  of  Babylonia,  and  pined  for  her  moun- 
tain home.  The  lowest  terrace  arose  some  500  feet  square, 
and  three  other  terraces,  supported  by  arches  and  pillars,  were 
constructed  above  it,  each  smaller  than  the  one  beneath.  These 
four  platforms  or  terraces  were  covered  with  soil  drawn  up  in 
carts,  and  the  earth  was  deep  enough  to  grow  large  trees,  as 
well  as  all  kinds  of  plants  and  vines.  A  pump  house  was 
located  on  top,  water  being  drawn  from  the  river  and  forced 
all  through  the  structure,  while  the  pipes  were  carefully  con- 
cealed. Broad  stairways  led  up  to  the  uppermost  terraces 
where  a  residence  was  built  for  the  favorite  queen.  Hanging 
gardens  had  been  built  in  Nineveh  by  former  kings,  but  none 
so  splendid  as  these  nor  on  so  gigantic  a  scale.  Seen  from 
afar,  overtowering  the  high  walls  of  the  city,  their  height  ac- 
centuated by  the  vast  expanse  of  level  land,  the  effect  was  that 
of  a  low  mountain,  clothed  in  verdure  and  scenting  the  breeze 
with  the  blended  fragrance  of  its  beautiful  flowers. 

The  population  of  Babylon  was  probably  above  500,000 
and  the  city  contained  more  wealthy  families  than  any  other 
in  Asia.  The  houses  of  these  added  to  the  beauty  of  the  place, 
while  two  royal  palaces,  one  on  either  side  of  the  Euphrates, 
exceeded  all  former  splendor  in  the  southland.  Streets  were 
laid  out  at  right  angles,  and  the  more  important  ones  terminated 
in  high  gates  leading  out  of  the  city  walls.  These  gates  were 
made  of  cedar  and  covered  with  bronze  plates.     Well  might 


3o6 


THE  worIvD's  progress. 


Nebuchadnezzar  exclaim :  "  Is  not  this  great  Babylon,  which 
I  have  built  for  the  royal  dwelling-place,  by  the  might  of  my 
power,  and  for  the  glory  of  my  majesty?"  And  again: 
"  For  the  astonishment  of  men  I  built  this  house ;  awe  of  the 
power  of  my  majesty  encompasses  its  walls.  The  temples 
of  the  great  gods  I  made  brilliant  as  the  sun,  shining  as  the 
day.  In  Babylon  alone  I  raised  the  seat  of  my  dominion,  in 
no  other  city!" 


becoration  in  enameled  tiles  on  one  of  the  gates  of  the  harem  in 

sargon's  palace. 


SOCIAI.  UF^  IN   MESOPOTAMIA.  ^ 

CHAPTER  XV. 
Religion. 

We  have  learned  something  of  the  primitive  rehgious  ideas 
of  the  Chaldeans,  or  Sumerians,  who  originally  occupied  Baby- 
lonia. However,  when  the  Babylonian  religion  is  mentioned, 
reference  is  made  to  the  later  faith  of  the  valley,  and  this  re- 
sulted from  a  blending  of  the  Sumerian  beliefs  and  the  re- 
ligious system  brought  in  by  the  Semitic  invaders. 

The  original  inhabitants  of  the  country,  in  their  attempt 
to  explain  the  forces  of  nature,  had  conceived  that  spirits  be- 
longed to  animate  as  well  as  inanimate  objects,  and  that  these 
spirits  had  power  to  bless  or  injure.  The  rain  could  refresh 
the  crops  or  it  might  wash  them  out  of  the  earth;  the  sun 
could  cause  the  grain  to  germinate  or  in  a  day  could  dry  it  up 
with  withering  heat.  The  evil  which  each  spirit  was  likely 
to  do  so  far  exceeded  the  good  that  gradually  these  spirits  were 
thought  of  as  demons.  It  was  a  demon  which  took  possession 
of  a  man  and  made  him  ill.  Famines  were  brought  by  the 
south-west  wind.  In  short,  demons  threatened  on  every  hand, 
and  only  a  diligent  use  of  charms  and  frequent  incantations 
could  protect  humanity  and  enable  each  to  live  out  his  days 
amidst  such  imminent  dangers. 

Now  it  is  evident  that  there  is  no  trace  of  our  conception 
of  a  god  in  all  this,  but  the  early  Sumerians  had  also  their  gods 
which  were  likewise  personifications  of  nature,  and  these  were 
later  adopted  by  the  Babylonian  Semites,  who  also  took  over 
the  earlier  beliefs  about  the  various  spirits.  In  the  course  of 
perhaps  several  hundred  years  from  the  blending  of  the  two 
beliefs,  with  such  changes  as  growing  intelligence  brought, 
the  religion  of  the  Babylonians  was  evolved. 

The  Semites  who  pushed  north  and  founded  the  state  of 
Assyria,  took  with  them  the  religion  of  the  southern  kingdom. 

In  explaining  further  the  religion  of  the  southland,  we 
must  remember  its  early  political  situation.  Instead  of  one 
united  kingdom,  it  was  made  up  of  a  number  of  little  states 


308  rut   WORLD*S   PROGRESS. 

under  leadership  of  cities.  The  leading  cities  had  grown  up 
around  the  temple  of  some  protecting  deity  whose  favor  was 
believed  to  extend  over  the  immediate  vicinity.  Thus,  for  ex- 
ample, Sin,  the  Moon-god,  was  not  only  the  patron  deity  of 
Ur,  but  of  the  whole  state  of  which  Ur  was  the  capital  city. 
To  exalt  its  god,  a  state  would  reach  out  to  incorporate  an- 
other. The  people  thus  conquered  did  not  cease  to  worship 
their  former  deity  but  now  gave  homage  to  the  god  of  their 
conquerors  as  well.  When  several  little  states  were  united, 
the  greatest  of  their  gods  was  the  god  of  their  strongest  city, 
since  he  had  clearly  demonstrated  his  power  by  giving  victory 
over  the  rest.  In  truth,  it  should  be  explained  that  such  was 
the  official  god,  for  without  doubt  the  masses  knew  little  of 
political  absorption  and  worshipped  the  god  of  their  infancy 
rather  than  new  gods  honored  by  the  state. 

In  course  of  various  unions,  En-lil  or  Bel  became  the  most 
important  god  in  Babylonia  and  remained  so  until  Babylon 
gained  supremacy  over  all  other  states.  Then  Marduk,  her 
ancient  god,  was  given  first  place. 

A  brief  consideration  of  the  leading  Babylonian  gods  will 
help  us  to  gain  some  insight  into  these  early  ideas  and  concep- 
tions. As  early  as  3500  b.  c,  En-lil  or  Bel  was  worshipped  in 
Nippur.  The  very  name  testifies  to  its  Sumerian  origin.  Lil 
signifies  demon,  and  En-lil  was  the  chief  of  spirits.  In  one  of 
the  earliest  inscriptions  in  Sumerian  he  is  mentioned  with  Anna 
and  Enki,  the  gods  of  heaven  and  the  abyss.  These  three  made 
up  the  original  triad  and  as  such  they  continued  throughout  the 
later  period  as  Bel  Anu  and  Ea.  Nippur  became  a  strong 
political  center  and  this  made  Bel  principal  god  of  the  land  until 
his  powers  were  transferred  to  Marduk.  Bel's  consort,  like  the 
consorts  of  all  Babylonian  gods,  was  but  a  weak  reflection  of  the 
god  himself. 

Eridu  was  a  seaport.  Ea,  god  of  "that  which  is  below," 
was  its  local  deity.  He  was  first  considered  as  god  of  the  earth 
but  the  water  was  of  greater  commercial  importance  and  gradu- 
ally he  grew  to  be  regarded  as  god  of  the  deep.  From  merely 
a  local  god,  protecting  Eridu,  he  extended  his  sway  over  all 
waters.  In  both  Larsa  and  Sippar  the  sun-god  Shamash,  known 
among  the  Sumerians  as  Utu,  was  honored.  No  other  deity 
enjoyed  such  continued  popularity  as  the  "god  of  day."  From 
the  earliest  to  the  latest  period  he  was  hailed  as  the  "god  that 


SOCIAI.  Wlf^  IN  MESOPOTAMIA.  309 

gives  light  and  life  to  all  things,  upon  whose  favor  the  prosperity 
of  the  fields  and  well-being  of  man  depend."  As  light  is 
opposed  to  darkness,  so  again  light  reveals  wrong  doing;  for 
this  reason  this  god  of  light  became  associated  with  justice. 
Sin,  the  Moon-god,  was  given  prominence  over  Shamash,  so 
far  as  official  order  of  deities  was  concerned.  Some  renown 
attached  to  him  because  he  was  the  father  of  Ishtar.  Indeed 
from  being  the  father  of  many  gods  and  goddesses,  he  was 
remembered  as  father  of  this  brilliant  goddess,  greater  than 
all  others.    Sin  was  worshipped  more  extensively  in  early  times. 

Ishtar,  supreme  goddess,  mother  of  the  gods,  was  first  con- 
ceived as  a  mild,  sympathetic  mother-spirit,  a  goddess  of  love 
and  care.  In  Assyria,  however,  she  was  regarded  as  goddess 
of  war  and  battle,  and  was  associated  with  Asshur  in  that  con- 
nection. Nabu,  the  wise,  all-knowing  god,  sacred  in  Borsippa, 
was  also  popular  in  literature  and  learning.  In  addition  to  being 
patron  of  intelligence  and  wisdom,  he  was  also  patron  of  agri- 
culture. When  his  favor  was  given,  storehouses  were  heaped 
high  with  grain ;  when  his  favor  was  withdrawn,  famine  afflicted 
the  land.  From  the  twelfth  century  B.C.  onwards  his  name 
appears  in  royal  names  such  as  Nabo-polasar,  Nebuchadnezzar, 
Nabo-nidus,  and  in  the  ninth  century  B.C.  the  worship  of  this 
god  only  was  preached :  "Put  thy  trust  in  Nebo ;  trust  not  in 
another  God."  The  long  proper  names  so  contantly  found  in 
both  Babylonia  and  Assyria  were  always  compounded  from 
several  words  and  had  some  particular  meaning — as,  Senna- 
cherib, or  more  correctly  Sin-akhi-irib,  meaning  "Sin  has 
multiplied  brethren ;"  Buzur-Asshur — "a  stronghold  is  Asshur ;" 
Sargon  or  Sargina — Sar  meaning  king  and  gin,  to  establish, 
"I  am  the  established  king." 

Anu  was  the  god  of  the  heavens ;  Ramman  the  god  of  storm, 
and  both  held  important  places  in  the  myths  and  stories  of  the 
people.  In  later  times  Ea  was  a  deity  of  wide  dominion.  Father 
of  Marduk,  he  was  god  of  humanity.  He  gave  wisdom,  and 
as  god  of  water,  fountains  were  sacred  to  him.  Cannes  or 
Fish-Man  was  simply  a  name  given  him  by  Greek  travellers. 
In  time  he  was  regarded  as  god  of  civilization,  and  nothing 
could  have  been  more  natural,  for  over  the  waters  he  protected 
came  civilization  to  Chaldea,  and  progress  was  facilitated  by 
navigation.  Great  works  of  art  were  ascribed  to  him ;  likewise 
he  was  god  of  the  smith  and  of  the  sculptor. 


3IO  THE  world's  progress. 

The  great  bulls  were  works  of  his  hand.  He  was  probably 
made  father  of  Marduk  in  later  years,  when  Babylon's  god 
had  been  given  first  place  in  the  nation,  and  the  only  way  to 
reconcile  all  that  was  believed  of  Ea  was  to  show  that  as  father, 
his  wisdom  had  descended  to  his  son,  Marduk. 

In  addition  to  these  leading  deities,  there  was  a  host  of 
minor  ones  but  their  enumeration  would  be  useless  for  our  pur- 
poses. One  tablet  in  the  British  museum  contained  originally 
the  names  of  nearly  1,800  gods.  They  were  early  local  gods, 
and  as  their  states  were  added  to  the  kingdom,  they  were 
included  in  the  temple  lists  to  pacify  their  worshippers. 

The  religious  faith  and  worship  for  any  one  district  was  not 
complicated.  Each  little  community  had  its  patron  deity  and 
paid  scant  attention  to  the  numerous  gods  of  temple  lists. 

In  Assyria  the  political  situation  had  been  far  different. 
No  large  number  of  petty  states,  each  with  its  religious  system, 
had  united  to  form  the  kingdom;  consequently  we  miss  the 
numerous  gods  found  in  Babylonia.  Asshur  was  the  one 
great  god  of  the  northern  people.  Alone  he  stood,  god  of  all. 
When  Assyria  entered  upon  her  military  career,  Asshur  was 
regarded  as  god  of  war,  and  because  of  repeated  victory, 
grew  very  popular  in  this  conception.  His  standard  was  car- 
ried into  battle  to  encourage  the  soldiers;  knowing  that  his 
mighty  power  was  with  them,  they  could  not  fail.  The  stand- 
ard of  Asshur,  one  of  the  earliest  ensigns  of  the  battle  field, 
has  its  own  interest  for  us.  On  top  of  a  long  pole,  guarded 
on  either  side  by  huge  wings,  perhaps  the  wings  of  the  eagle, 
a  circle  enclosed  the  figure  of  an  archer,  shooting  an  arrow. 
Seen  afar  by  faltering  troops,  the  standards  of  the  national 
god  gave  new  strength  and  inspired  fresh  hope  of  victory. 

The  similarity  between  the  religion  of  the  Assyrians  and 
the  Hebrews  has  frequently  been  noted.  Both  nations  were 
Semitic  and  hence  their  inheritances  were  the  same.  Their 
origin  and  early  home  was  identical.  The  Hebrews,  in  course 
of  their  wanderings  and  experiences,  grew  to  worship  one 
God  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others.  The  Assyrians  retained 
their  warlike  disposition,  and  worshipped  one  God  as  greater 
than  all  others,  but  they  allowed  other  deities  to  be  honored 
as  well.  Both  nations  with  great  regularity  ascribed  all  their 
victories  to  the  divinity  they  worshipped — ^nay,  more  by  far. 


SOCIAI,   LIFS   IN    MESOPOTAMIA.  3II 

they  attributed  all  their  slaughters  to  the  same  deity.  The 
Hebrews,  during  the  period  when  as  tribes  they  struggled 
for  existence,  treated  their  enemies  with  great  cruelty.  This 
was  done,  they  insisted,  to  appease  their  God,  or  generally  in 
furtherance  of  his  direct  command.  Their  brethren,  the  As- 
syrians, proceeded  in  exactly  the  same  manner,  and  all  their 
ruthless  deeds  were  done  to  gratify  Asshur  and  avenge  the 
insults  done  him  by  revolts  against  his  strength.  One  divinity 
commanded  the  outrages  as  much  as  the  other,  and  they  were 
but  expressions  of  an  early  and  barbarous  development. 

Among  the  masses,  the  sacrifice  was  unquestionably  that 
feature  of  worship  best  understood.  It  seems  to  have  been 
an  instinct  born  in  man  to  make  offerings  to  appease  the  wrath 
of  a  god,  and  to  seek  by  the  same  means  to  win  his  favor.  The 
priests  acted  as  mediators  between  the  people  and  the  divinity. 
To  a  priest,  the  farmer,  laborer,  and  slave  as  well  as  the  noble 
and  prince,  brought  each  his  offering,  and  such  portions  as 
were  considered  sacred  were  offered  upon  the  altar. 

As  the  Egyptian  provided  food  for  the  ka  of  the  deceased, 
so  also  the  Babylonian  provided  it  for  the  zi  of  his  dead.  It 
is  possible  that  the  belief  in  the  shadowy  ka  came  originally 
from  the  valley  of  the  Euphrates. 

Gods  were  supposed  to  visit  their  shrines  at  intervals  and 
so  food  was  placed  for  them.  The  masses  of  the  people  were 
so  ignorant  that  it  is  entirely  probable  they  regarded  the 
image  of  the  god  as  the  god  himself,  and  that  they  thought  these 
images  of  clay  and  stone  actually  devoured  the  food  they 
brought.^  The  more  enlightened  had  no  such  crude  notions, 
but  realized  that  the  god-spirit  was  something  apart  from 
anything  they  saw  and  worshipped.  If  we  substitute  the  name 
of  the  Hebrew  deity  in  place  of  the  Babylonian  god,  worship- 
pers of  Judah  might  have  used  some  of  the  hymns  of  prayer 
and  praise  used  in  Babylonia:    — - — 

"  The  heart  of  my  lord  is  wroth ;  may  it  be  appeased ! 
O  lord,  my  sins  are  many,  my  transgressions  are  great! 
The  sin  that  I  sinned  I  knew  not, 
The  transgression  I  committed  I  knew  not, 
The  lord  in  the  wrath  of  his  heart  has  regarded  me, 
God  in  the  fierceness  of  his  heart  has  revealed  himself  to  me. 


^See  the  apocryphal  story  of  Bel  and  the  Dragoa 


312  THIS   WORI^D'S    PROGRESS. 

I  sought  for  help  and  none  took  my  hand; 
I  wept,  and  none  stood  at  my  side; 
I  cried  aloud,  and  there  was  none  that  heard  me. 
I  am  in  trouble  and  hiding;  I  dare  not  look  up. 
To  my  god,  the  merciful  one,  I  turn  myself,  I  utter  my  prayer; 
The  sins  I  have  sinned  turn  into  a  blessing ; 
The  transgressions  I  have  committed  let  the  wind  carry  away! 
Strip  off  my  manifold  wickedness  as  a  garment! 
O  my  god,  seven  times  seven  are  my  transgressions :  forgive  my 
sins!" 

Another,  written  first  to  Sin  of  Ur,  and  later  incorporated 
into  the  hymns  of  the  nation : 

"  Father,  long-suffering  and  full  of  forgiveness. 
Whose  hand  upholdeth  the  life  of  all  mankind! 
First-born,  omnipotent,  whose  heart  is  immensity,  and  there  is 

none  who  may  fathom  it ! 
In  heaven  who  is  supreme  ?  Thou  alone,  thou  art  supreme ! 
On  earth,  who  is  supreme?  Thou  alone,  thou  art  supreme! 
As  for  thee,  thy  will  is  made  known  in  heaven,  and  the  angels 

bow  their  faces. 
As  for  thee,  thy  will  is  made  known  upon  earth,  and  the  spirits 
below  kiss  the  ground." 

Elsewhere  we  find  Ashur  appealed  to  as  "lord  of  the  gods, 
who  has  created  himself." 

Services  were  many.  Each  day  required  its  own  offerings 
and  ceremonies.  The  changes  of  the  moon  were  watched  and 
accompanied  by  peculiar  services.  Taboos  were  placed  on  cer- 
tain days  and  on  these  no  work  was  permitted. 

The  priesthood  was  large.  Besides  the  chief  priests,  there 
were  elders,  anointers, — who  anointed  the  images  of  the  gods 
and  the  vessels  of  the  temple  with  sacred  oil ;  priests  who  pre- 
sided over  the  oracles  and  whose  function  it  was  to  ascertain 
auspicious  times  for  war  and  other  prodigious  undertakings, 
and  seers,  who  interpreted  dreams. 

Revenues  of  the  temples  came  from  offerings  and  more 
regularly,  from  the  tithe,  a  tax  paid  by  both  king  and  sub- 
jects. In  this  way,  the  temples  controlled  property.  Their 
lands  were  usually  rented  out. 

When  Babylonia  reached  her  age  of  greatest  prosperity, 
the  religion  of  the  land  had  been  greatly  secularized,  and  the 


SOCIAI.   life:   in    MESOPOTAMIA.  3I3 

temples  were  important  for  their  business  significances  quite  as 
much  as  for  their  reHgious  features.  "  The  temple  exerted  an 
overwhelming  financial  influence  in  smaller  towns.  Only  in 
certain  large  cities  was  it  rivalled  by  a  few  great  firms.  Its 
financial  status  was  that  of  the  chief,  if  not  the  only,  great 
capitalist.  Its  political  influence  was  also  great.  This  was 
largely  enlisted  on  the  side  of  peace  at  home  and  stability  in 
business."  Its  great  possessions  resulted  from  the  daily  and 
monthly  payments,  from  lands  dedicated  to  the  temple  by 
devout  ones,  and  from  careful  investment  of  revenues. 

"  The  temple  was  also  a  commercial  institution  of  high 
efficiency.  Their  accumulations  of  all  sorts  of  raw  products 
were  enormous.  The  temple  let  out  or  advanced  all  kinds  of 
raw  material,  usually  on  easy  terms.  To  the  poor,  as  a  charity, 
advances  were  made  in  times  of  a  scarcity  or  personal  want, 
to  their  tenants  as  part  of  the  metayer  system  of  tenure,  to 
slaves  who  lived  outside  its  precincts,  and  to  contractors  who 
took  the  material  on  purely  commercial  terms.  The  return 
was  expected  in  kind,  to  the  full  amount  of  advance,  or  with 
stipulated  interest.     ... 

"  The  temples  did  a  certain  amount  of  banking  business. 
By  this  we  mean  that  they  held  money  on  deposit  against  the 
call  of  the  depositor.  Whether  they  charged  for  safe-keeping 
or  remunerated  themselves  by  investing  the  bulk  of  their  capi- 
tal, reserving  a  balance  to  meet  calls,  does  not  appear.     .     .     . 

"  In  certain  circumstances  the  king's  officials  might  bor- 
row of  the  temples.  .  .  .  Some  kings  laid  hands  on  the 
treasure  of  the  temple  for  their  own  use.  Doubtless  this  was 
done  under  bond  to  repay.  The  cases  in  which  we  read  of 
such  practices  are  always  represented  as  a  wrong.     .     .     . 

"  The  temple  could  act  in  all  the  capacities  of  a  private 
individual  or  a  firm  of  traders.'" 

The  religion  of  Mesopotamia  did  not  require  the  believer 
to  preserve  his  dead,  as  in  Egypt.  Cremation  was  almost  al- 
ways resorted  to,  and  for  this  reason  we  lack  the  tomb-finds, 
so  elucidating  in  Egypt.  The  body  was  made  ready  for  burial, 
with  some  food  and  other  necessities,  then  it  was  partially 
burned,  at  least,  and  the  remains  entombed.  The  conditions 
of  the  country  in  Babylonia  made  cremation  almost  a  necessity. 

•Johns:  Baby,  and  Assy.  Laws,  Contracts  and  Letters,  211. 


314  TH^  world's  progress. 

While  some  degree  of  purity  was  occasionally  reached  in 
Mesopotamian  conceptions  of  religion,  and  far-sighted  and 
high-minded  persons  lived  in  both  countries,  there  was  much 
that  was  degrading  in  connection  with  the  worship.  All  Baby- 
lonian classes  were  grossly  superstitious  and  believed  always 
in  the  demons.  The  incantations  used  to  drive  these  away 
were  not  only  countenanced  by  the  priesthood,  but  were  taught 
as  a  part  of  the  established  worship.  Demons  were  of  various 
kinds  and  possessed  different  degrees  of  power.  They  lurked 
in  obscure  places,  ready  to  inflict  themselves  upon  unhappy  mor- 
tals. All  diseases,  all  misfortunes  were  their  doings.  A  suf- 
ferer exclaims: 

"  They  have  used  all  kinds  of  charms 
to  entwine  me  as  a  rope, 
to  catch  me  as  in  a  cage, 
to  tie  me  as  with  cords, 
to  overpower  me  as  in  a  net, 
to  twist  me  as  with  a  sling, 
to  tear  me  as  a  fabric, 
to  throw  me  down  as  a  wall." 

To  this  the  conjurer  replies: 

"  But  I  by  command  of  Marduk,  the  lord  of  charms, 
by  Marduk,  the  master  of  bewitchment, 
Both  the  male  and  female  witch 
as  with  ropes  I  will  entwine, 
as  in  a  cage  I  will  catch, 
as  with  cords  I  will  tie, 
as  in  a  net  I  will  overpower, 
as  in  a  sling  I  will  twist, 
as  a  fabric  I  will  tear, 
as  a  wall  throw  them  down." 

At  this  juncture,  images  of  witches  were  burned  by  fire, 
having  been  tortured  first  by  these  specified  actions. 

The  ritual  set  forth  water  as  a  purification  for  some  be- 
witchment. 


SOCIAIv  U^e  IN    MESOPOTAMIA.  3I5 

"  Glittering  water,  pure  water, 
Holy  water,  resplendent  water, 
The  water  twice  seven  times  may  he  bring, 
May  he  make  pure,  may  he  make  resplendent. 
May  the  evil  spirit  depart, 
May  he  betake  himself  outside, 
Spirit  of  heaven,  be  thou  invoked! 
Spirit  of  earth,  be  thou  invoked! 

Another  remedy  was  this : 

"  White  wool,  which  has  been  spun  into  thread. 
To  attach  it  to  his  :couch  in  front  and  at  the  top, 
Black  wool  which  has  been  spun  into  thread 
To  bind  at  his  left  side.'" 

In  addition  to  long  lists  of  formulae  for  driving  away  the 
demons  of  sickness,  and  famine  and  misfortune,  a  countless 
number  of  omens  had  to  be  taken  into  account  if  one  wished 
success  to  accompany  his  undertakings.  Some  of  these  con- 
cerned the  movement  of  heavenly  bodies. 

"  The  moon  and  sun  are  balanced. 
The  subjects  will  be  faithful 
The  king  of  the  land  will  reign  for  a  long  time." 

Another  brought  a  sense  of  danger  in  its  day : 

"  On  the  fifteenth  day  the  sun  and  moon  are  seen  together, 
A  powerful  enemy  raises  his  weapons  against  the  land. 
The  enemy  will  smash  the  great  gate  of  the  city; 
The  star  of  Anu  appears  bright — 
The  enemy  will  devastate." ^ — 

Or  this : 

"  The  moon  is  seen  out  of  season. 
Crops  will  be  small. 

On  the  twelfth  day  the  moon  is  seen  together  with  the  sun — • 
A  strong  enemy  will  devastate  the  land." 

^Jastrow :  Babylonian  Religion. 


3i6  THE  world's  PROGRKSS. 

A  numerous  list  of  omens  pertained  to  the  doings  of  ani- 
mals. Stray  dogs  might  bring  disaster  if  they  entered  houses 
in  unusual  ways,  and  yet  it  was  necessary  that  they  frequent 
the  streets.  By-wayfe  that  they  left  were  not  thought  lucky. 
The  following  omens  have  been  translated  from  old  tablets: 

"  If  a  yellow  dog  enters  a  palace,  it  is  a  sign  of  distress. 
If  a  speckled  dog  enters  a  palace,  the  palace  will  give  peace  to 

the  enemy. 
If  a  dog  enters  a  palace  and  crouches  on  the  couch,  no  one 

will  enjoy  that  palace  in  peace. 
If  a  dog  enters  a  temple,  the  gods  will  not  enlarge  the  land. 
If  a  raven  enters  a  man's  house,  that  man  will  secure  whatever 

he  desires." 

All  kinds  of  dreams  were  carefully  tabulated,  and  were 
noted  from  time  to  time  in  connection  with  events  in  the 
dreamers'  lives : 

"  If  in  a  dream  a  fish  appear  on  a  man's  head,  that  man  will  be 

powerful." 
"  If  a  mountain  appear  on  a  man's  head,  that  man  will  be  without 

a  rival.'" 

While  all  these  omens  were  not  directly  connected  with 
worship,  they  were  consistent  with  the  religious  teaching  of 
the  time,  and  so  are  perhaps  rightly  considered  here. 

The  Babylonians  were  more  religious  than  the  Assyrians 
and  their  government  was  far  more  bound  up  in  religious 
ceremonies.  One  fact  alone  bears  out  this  statement:  In 
Babylonia  the  king  must  each  year  celebrate  anew  the  ceremony 
of  taking  his  temporal  power  from  the  god  Marduk  by  taking 
the  hands  of  the  god's  image.  This  service  took  place  on 
New  Year's  day,  and  no  matter  what  might  be  the  situation 
in  other  parts  of  the  empire,  to  Babylon  the  king  must  come 
and  observe  the  ancient  custom  would  he  remain  possessor  of 
the  kingly  crown. 

•Jastrow:  Babylonian  Religion, 


SOCIAL  UFE  IN  M^OPOTAMIA.  3I7 

n,0         NABO-  KU-         DU-  BI-  UTSCB 

no         HA-      BI-         VU-         XV'  DU-  UK-  BI-  U-  TSU-  UB 

The  name  Nebuchadnezzar  in  two  forms  of  writing— as  found  on  br  ck  and  in  inscriptions. 

CHAPTER  XVI. 
The  Laboring  Classes. 

Both  slave  and  free  labor  existed  In  Babylonia,  but,  as  has 
been  previously  said,  there  was  no  special  prejudice  felt  to- 
wards the  slave.  He  was  often  of  the  same  nationality  as  the 
owner,  was  trusted,  and  often  adopted  into  the  family.  Pa- 
rents sold  their  children  into  slavery,  and  in  hard  times  men 
would  even  sell  themselves  to  obtain  food  and  shelter.  On 
the  other  hand,  slaves  might  become  free  men  and  might  ripe 
to  positions  of  high  importance  in  the  state.  Having  been  a 
slave  left  no  stigma  to  one  who  later  became  free.  The  slave 
might  accumulate  money  and  so  purchase  his  freedom;  free- 
dom might  be  secured  to  him  because  of  adoption  into  a  family. 
While  still  in  servitude  he  might  appear  as  a  witness  or  party 
in  a  suit,  and  his  testimony  was  valued  as  much  as  though  he 
were  free.  Nevertheless,  while  enjoying  privileges  unusual  to 
one  in  slavery,  he  was  still  but  a  chattel  given  as  security  for  a 
debt,  offered  as  part  of  a  dowry,  or  again,  his  services  might 
be  hired  out  for  a  given  period,  his  earnings  to  go  to  his  owner. 

Various  measures  were  taken  to  protect  the  slave,  as  the 
Code  of  Hammurabi  shows.  Fines  were  imposed  for  any 
abuses  suffered  during  a  period  when  he  was  hired  out.  This 
served  as  a  check  upon  those  who  otherwise  might  have  caused 
him  to  ovfrwork. 

Slaves  made  up  quite  a  portion  of  the  laborers,  both  in 
Babylonia  and-  Assyria,  although  in  the  latter  country  less 
friendly  relations  seem  to  have  existed  between  slave  and 
owner,  for  the  great  mass  of  Assyrian  slaves  had  been  taken 
captives  in  war,  and  were  foreigners,  unaccustomed  to  the  ways 
of  the  land,  and  less  devoted,  probably,  to  the  interests  of  those 
who  owned  them. 

Few  slaves  were  bought  and  sold  with  the  land,  and  these 
generally   belonged   to   temple    lands.     Private   farms   were 
worked  by  slaves  privately  owned. 
1—22 


3i8  THE  world's  progress. 

Free  labor  was  available,  but  as  a  consequence  of  slavery, 
wages  were  low.  The  grazers  were  generally  free  men ;  they 
received  large  herds  of  cattle  and  flocks  of  sheep  from  several 
owners,  and  these  they  pastured  for  months  together  on  the 
west  slope  of  the  Euphrates.  Because  the  herds  required  con- 
stant protection  from  nomadic  tribes  of  the  desert,  the  grazers 
had  to  be  men  of  responsibility. 

The  oldest  occupation  of  the  Euphrates  valley  was  agri- 
culture. The  soil  yielded  heavily  and  early  won  tribes  away 
from  their  roving  state.  Taxes  were  always  paid  in  kind,  and 
grain  was  stored  for  times  of  scarcity  in  royal  granaries. 

For  the  Babylonian,  the  year  opened  in  the  fall — in  Tisri 
(September),  the  month  of  harvest.  When  his  crops  were 
harvested,  the  farmer  paid  his  tax;  if  the  land  was  farmed  out, 
the  owner  paid  the  tax  and  the  tenant  paid  his  rent.  New 
contracts  for  land  were  made  at  this  time  of  the  year. 

The  ordinary  arrangement  between  landlord  and  tenant 
seems  to  have  been  that  he  who  rented  should  pay  one-third 
of  the  3'ear's  produce  for  the  use  of  the  farm,  and  that  he 
should  keep  all  buildings  and  ditches  in  repair.  This  last  stipu- 
lation was  strongly  enjoined,  and  a  fine  was  inflicted  did  he 
fail  in  this  particular. 

During  the  portion  of  the  year  when  the  usual  round  of 
sowing  and  reaping  ceased,  the  canals  and  ditches  needed  at- 
tention. The  entire  prosperity  of  the  soil  depended  upon  the 
maintenance  of  the  irrigation  system. 

"  Ploughing,  harrowing,  sowing,  reaping,  and  threshing 
constituted  the  chief  events  of  the  agricultural  year.  The 
winters  were  not  cold,  and  the  Babylonian  peasant  was  conse- 
quently not  obliged  to  spend  a  part  of  the  year  indoors  shiver- 
ing over  a  fire.  In  fact  fuel  was  scarce  in  the  country;  few 
trees  were  grown  in  it  except  the  palm,  and  the  fruit  of  the 
palm  was  too  valuable  to  allow  it  to  be  cut  down.  When  the 
ordinary  occupations  of  the  fafmer  had  come  to  an  end,  he 
was  expected  to  look  after  his  farm  buildings  and  fences,  to 
build  walls  and  clean  out  the  ditches. 

"  The  ditches,  indeed,  were  more  important  in  Babylonia 
than  in  most  other  parts  of  the  world.  Irrigation  was  as  neces- 
sary as  in  Egypt,  though  for  a  different  reason.  The  Chal- 
dean plain  had  originally  been  a  marsh,  and  it  required  cont^ 


SOCIAL   UFS   IN    MESOPOTAMIA.  3I9 

stant  supervision  to  prevent  it  from  being  once  more  inundated 
by  the  waters  and  made  uninhabitable.  The  embankments 
which  hindered  the  overflow  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  and 
kept  them  within  carefully  regulated  channels,  the  canals 
which  carried  off  the  surplus  water  and  distributed  it  over  the 
country,  needed  continual  attention.  Each  year,  after  the  rains 
of  the  winter,  the  banks  had  to  be  strengthened  or  re-made  and 
the  beds  of  the  canals  cleared  out.  The  irrigator,  moreover, 
was  perpetually  at  work;  the  rainy  season  did  not  last  long, 
and  during  the  rest  of  the  year  the  land  was  dependent  on  the 
water  supplied  by  the  rivers  and  canals.  Irrigation,  therefore, 
formed  a  large  and  important  part  of  the  farmers'  work,  and 
the  bucket  of  the  irrigator  must  have  been  constantly  swing- 
ing."' 

Large  numbers  of  sheep  were  raised  in  these  valleys,  and 
the  manufacture  of  wool  into  dress-stuffs,  carpets,  and  tapest- 
ries, made  Babylonia  famous  among  the  nations  of  her  time. 
Her  rugs  and  carpets  were  the  pride  of  her  people  and  large 
sums  were  paid  for  them.  Scenes  sculptured  in  bas-relief 
were  seen  in  tapestries  which  lined  the  walls  of  wealthy 
homes.  Vegetable  dyes  were  used,  and  gayly  colored  flowers, 
bright  hues  and  tints,  made  attractive  decorations  for  interiors 
against  dull  back-grounds  of  brick.  A  large  proportion  of  the 
industrial  population  was  engaged  in  weaving,  dyeing,  and 
preparing  these  commodities  for  shops  and  other  places  of  sale. 

Because  of  the  constantly  growing  demand  for  wool,  many 
were  induced  to  raise  sheep  and  to  trade  in  the  raw  wool. 
Records  show  that  Belshazzar,  son  of  the  king  and  heir  to 
the  Babylonian  throne,  was  a  wool-merchant  on  a  large  scale, 
his  commercial  interests  being,  of  course,  managed  by  others. 

The  price  of  wool  varied  greatly,  being  sometimes  high, 
sometimes  low.  It  cost  little  in  addition  to  the  wages  of  the 
shepherd  to  pasture  flocks  west  of  the  river  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  year,  for  pasturage  there  was  free  to  all.  For  some 
months,  to  be  sure,  sheep  had  to  be  sheltered  and  fed  inside 
enclosures,  within  or  near  the  city.  This  was  the  costly  part 
of  sheep-raising. 

When  the  flocks  were  driven  into  town,  toll  per  head  was 
exacted  at  the  city  gate.     Lists  of  the  various  tolls  collected 

i  Sayce :  Baby,  and  Assy.,  88. 


320  THE  wori^d's  progress. 

and  turned  into  the  general  treasury  show  them  altogether  to 
have  been  considerable;  not  only  were  they  collected  of  all  who 
passed  through  the  gates  but  a  bridge  toll  was  paid  by  whoever 
passed  over  the  bridge  connecting  Babylon  and  Borslppa, 
across  the  river;  all  ships  and  sailing  crafts,  moreover,  paid  a 
toll  to  pass  under  the  bridge. 

Enumerations  of  the  trades  of  Babylonia  have  been  found ; 
these  mention  the  trades  of  carpenter,  smith,  metal-worker, 
weaver,  leather-worker,  dyer,  potter,  brick-maker  and  vintner. 
The  carpenter  not  only  raised  the  beams  and  scaffolding  of 
houses,  but  as  well  made  whatever  articles  of  furniture  the 
times  afforded.  The  brick-maker  made  tablets  for  inscriptions 
as  well  as  bricks  for  building  purposes.  The  brickyards  were 
always  on  low  land,  near  the  river,  where  reeds,  so  useful  in 
brick-making,  were  abundant.  Building  bricks  were  made  in 
different  sizes — some  nearly  a  foot  square  by  2^^  inches  thick; 
others  about  15  by  15  and  three  inches  in  thickness.  Chopped 
reeds  were  frequently  mixed  in  the  bricks  themselves,  and 
since  the  demand  for  them  was  constant,  they  were  cultivated 
and  grown  in  large  areas.  In  a  secluded  corner  of  the  brick- 
yard, the  fine  tablets  for  literary  purposes  were  produced ;  and 
here  too,  dishes  and  vases  of  pottery  were  molded  and  baked. 
Thus  we  see  that  great  activity  and  divers  interests  attached  to 
these  yards  given  over  to  the  manufacture  of  clay  articles. 

The  leather  worker  found  material  in  abundance,  owing 
to  the  extensive  cattle  raising.  Harnesses,  saddles,  and  shoes, 
beautifully  decorated,  were  chief  among  leather  commodities. 

The  smith  excelled  in  fashioning  articles  from  gold,  silver, 
copper  and  bronze.  Ordinarily  the  metal  was  melted  and  run 
into  molds  of  clay  or  stone.  The  customer  usually  furnished 
the  ore  and  paid  for  the  work  upon  it.  Metal  workers  were 
held  accountable  for  the  excellence  of  their  work,  as  is  shown 
by  guaranties  found,  whereby  they  promised  to  pay  heavy 
fines  if  during  a  given  term  of  years,  their  work  should  be 
found  imperfect. 

The  people  of  Babylonia  never  succeeded  in  mastering  the 
bas-relief  work,  so  effectively  used  in  Assyrian  palaces. 
Enamelled  tiles  took  the  place  of  these,  and  they  were  either 
painted  in  some  design  and  glazed,  or  simply  tinted.  "Quite 
as  old  as  the  trade  of  the  carver  in  ivory  was  that  of  the  porce- 


SOCIAI,   IvIFE   IN    MESOPOTAMIA.  321 

Iain-maker.  The  walls  of  the  palaces  and  temples  of  Baby- 
lonia and  Assyria  were  adorned  with  glazed  and  enamelled 
tiles  on  which  figures  and  other  designs  were  drawn  in  brilliant 
colors ;  they  were  then  covered  with  a  metallic  glaze  and  fired. 
Babylonia,  in  fact,  seems  to  have  been  the  original  home  of 
the  enamelled  tile  and  therefore  with  the  manufacture  of 
porcelain.  It  was  a  land  of  clay  and  not  of  stone,  and  while 
it  thus  became  necessary  to  ornament  the  plain  mud  wall  of 
the  house,  the  clay  brick  itself,  when  painted  and  protected  by 
a  glaze,  was  made  into  the  very  best  and  most  enduring  of 
ornaments.  The  enamelled  bricks  of  Chaldea  and  Assyria  are 
among  the  most  beautiful  relics  of  Babylonian  civilization  that 
have  survived  to  us,  and  those  which  are  now  in  the  Museum 
of  the  Louvre  are  unsurpassed  by  the  most  elaborate  produc- 
tions of  modern  skill." 

The  trade  of  the  vintner  was  lucrative.  Wines  were  made 
from  dates  and  grapes;  beer  was  doubtless  made  from  grain. 
It  seems  to  have  been  the  custom  to  supply  laborers  with  beer 
with  their  daily  rations. 

Organizations  among  workmen  corresponded  to  the  guilds 
of  later  years.  Those  who  would  learn  a  trade,  whether  free- 
men or  slaves,  had  to  serve  as  apprentices  a  certain  time  and 
learn  the  work  thoroughly. 

Wages  were  always  so  low  that  they  amounted  to  little. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  the  average  wages  of  a  workman 
was  about  12s.,  or  $3.00  a  year;  unskilled  laborers  were  con- 
tented if  merely  supplied  with  food.  In  the  reign  of  Cambyses 
a  butcher  is  recorded  to  have  been  paid  75  cents  for  a  month's 
work — freemen  had  always  to  compete  with  slave  labor,  and 
if  only  the  employer  furnished  food  and  clothing,  he  could 
command  any  amount  of  labor. 

Babylonia  early  exchanged  her  grain  and  dates  for  the 
products  of  other  lands.  For  example,  teak-wood  and  cotton 
were  brought  from  Arabia,  cedar  from  Lebanon,  marble  from 
the  east,  gold  from  the  peninsula  of  Sinai.  Sometimes  the  raw 
materials  were  made  up  in  Babylonia  and  returned  to  the  lands 
from  whence  they  came  together  with  grain,  rugs  and  cloth 
of  wool.  Because  of  her  geographical  position.  Babylonia  was 
able  to  command  an  important  commercial  position,  importing 
and  exporting  constantly. 


322  THE   world's   progress. 

"  The  mass  of  the  people  in  Babylonia  were  employed  in 
the  two  pursuits  of  commerce  and  agriculture.  The  commerce 
was  both  foreign  and  domestic.  Great  numbers  of  the  Baby- 
lonians were  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  those  fabrics, 
particularly  carpets  and  muslins,  which  Babylonia  produced 
not  only  for  her  own  use  but  also  for  the  consumption  of  for- 
eign lands.  The  ordinary  trades  and  handicrafts  practised  in 
the  East  no  doubt  flourished  in  the  country.  A  brisk  import 
and  export  trade  was  constantly  kept  up,  and  promoted  a 
healthful  activity  throughout  the  entire  body  politic.  Baby- 
lonia is  called  '  a  land  of  traffic '  by  Ezekiel,  and  Babylon  '  a 
city  of  merchants.'  The  monuments  show  that  from  the  very 
earliest  times  the  people  of  the  low  country  on  the  borders  of 
the  Persian  Gulf  were  addicted  to  maritime  pursuits  and 
navigated  the  gulf  freely,  if  they  did  not  even  venture  on 
the  open  ocean.     .     .     . 

"  The  products  of  the  various  countries  of  Western  Asia 
flowed  into  Babylonia  down  the  courses  of  the  rivers.  From 
Armenia  came  wine,  gems,  emery,  and  perhaps  stone;  from 
Phoenicia,  tin,  copper,  musical  instruments;  from  Media,  silk, 
gold  and  ivory." ' 

The  Proeessions:   The  Banker. 

In  ancient  times,  the  money-lender  was  the  banker,  and 
lending  money  was  foremost  in  Babylonian  professions.  Even 
members  of  the  royal  families  were  themselves  heavy  loaners 
and  drew  high  rates  of  interest,  although,  to  be  sure,  their 
business  transactions  were  carried  on  by  agents. 

The  rate  of  interest  varied  greatly,  being  generally  higher 
in  Assyria.  In  Babylonia  it  might  be  20%,  or  again  16%,  and 
was  rarely  as  low  as  10%.  Cases  are  on  record  in  Assyria 
where  25%  and  33>^%  were  exacted.  As  is  still  customary  in 
the  East,  interest  was  computed  monthly,  and  unless  the  bor- 
rower was  well  known  and  trusted,  it  was  paid  monthly. 
Security  for  the  full  amount  was  always  required. 

A  great  firm  of  Babylon  held  a  position  in  that  country 
corresponding  to  that  held  by  the  Rothschilds  in  England, 
loaning  to  the  state  as  well  as  to  private  individuals.  Personal 
deeds  and  documents  belonging  to  citizens  were  stored   in 

2Rawlinson:  Babylonia. 


SOCIAI,  UfE  IN    MESOPOTAMIA.  323 

the  well-protected  chambers  of  this  firm  as  they  are  today 
kept  in  safety  boxes  in  bank  vaults.  Banking  firms  con- 
tinued for  generations,  and  immense  numbers  of  wills,  deeds 
of  sale,  business  contracts,  leases,  tax  certificates,  loans  and 
marriage  agreements  accumulated  within  their  chambers. 

Scribes. 

While  each  one  pleaded  his  own  case  ordinarily,  in  the 
courts  of  Babylonia,  pleas  were  frequently  thrown  into  form 
beforehand  by  a  scribe.  These  scribes  performed  duties 
discharged  in  later  times  by  attorneys  at  law,  as  well  as  those 
which  would  of  necessity  fall  to  their  share.  In  Babylonia 
they  acted  as  librarians,  authors  and  publishers,  multiplying 
copies  of  books  and  selling  them.  In  Assyria,  where  the  art 
of  reading  and  writing  was  not  so  generally  known,  they 
acted  as  private  clerks  and  secretaries  to  a  wide  extent. 

Medicine. 

We  have  noted  early  in  our  study  that  medicine  had  but  a 
small  part  in  Babylonian  life.  Charms,  magic  and  incanta- 
tions in  a  large  measure  took  its  place.  However,  with 
acquaintance  with  Eg>'pt,  came  an  impulse  to  learn  of  a 
science  which  occupied  a  more  important  position  in  the  valley 
of  the  Nile.  While  physicians  came  into  prominence  in  later 
years,  they  were  never  wholly  depended  upon.  The  doctor 
was  called  to  act  in  unison  with  the  magician  and  conjurer 
unless,  as  was  often  the  case,  he  himself  united  the  two  arts 
of  healing.  Herodotus  and  other  travellers  have  testified  to 
cases  similar  to  the  following :  "  Pressing  forward  and  peep- 
ing over  tlie  heads  of  the  people,  we  see  a  man  stretched 
upon  a  mattress,  and  apparently  just  about  to  die.  A  few 
weeping  friends  kneel  at  his  side,  and  we  learn  that  he  has 
been  brought  from  his  home,  and  laid  down  in  the  public 
market  place,  in  the  vain  hope  that  some  one  may  propose 
a  remedy  which  will  save  his  life.  This  custom,  so  strange 
to  us,  is  common  in  Babylon,  they  say.  When  all  else  has 
failed,  when  doctors  and  sorcerers  have  done  their  best,  fhe 
sick  person  is  transported  to  the  open  square,  and  advice  is 
asked  from  the  crowd  which  is  sure  to  gather. 

"  Today,  as  ever,  each  has  a  different  remedy  to  propose, 


324  THE  world's  progress. 

though  all  are  agreed  as  to  the  cause  of  illness.  A  demon 
possesses  the  man,  of  that  there  is  no  question.  *  Come  away, 
little  one  I  *  cries  an  old  woman,  drawing  back  her  grandson. 

*  Go  not  too  near,  lest  the  evil  spirit  leave  the  man,  and  seize 
upon  thee.  Often  have  I  seen  it.  Bel  be  praised  that  I 
have  his  image ! '  And  she  draws  forth  a  little  clay  image 
of  Bel,  and  hangs  it  carefully  on  the  neck  of  her  grandson. 

*  Hast  thou  tried  the  wool  of  a  young  sheep  ?  *  asks  a  woman 
of  the  sick  man's  wife.  *  Let  a  sorcerer  tie  seven  knots  in 
it,  on  seven  moonlight  nights.  Tie  the  strands  around  thy 
husband's  neck,  around  his  limbs,  around  his  head.  So  shall 
his  soul  not  leave  his  body.' 

"  *  Try  the  recipe  of  Asshurbanipal  the  Assyrian,*  cries  an- 
other. *  It  is  well  known  and  never  fails.  Six  different 
kinds  of  wood,  a  bit  of  snake  skin,  some  wine,  and  a  piece 
of  ox  flesh.  ;Make  a  paste,  and  cause  the  sick  man  to  swal- 
low it." 

"  A  man  hurries  up  with  a  handful  of  clay,  and  molds  a 
little  figure  which  he  displays  as  the  image  of  the  sick  man. 
We  cannot  see  the  resemblance,  but  the  crowd  presses  for- 
ward and  watches  his  motions  with  eager  curiosity.  He  calls 
for  a  cup  of  wine,  pours  part  of  it  over  the  image,  and  after 
drinking  the  rest,  mutters  an  incantation.  All  in  vain,  while 
he  is  yet  speaking,  the  family  of  the  sick  man  raises  a  chorus 
of  wails,  in  which  the  crowd  joins.  The  man  is  dead;  no 
charm  can  avail  him  more."' 

The  Soldier. 

We  cannot  speak  of  the  vocation  of  the  soldier  as  we 
speak  of  the  regular  professions  of  men,  but  any  account  of 
Assyria  which  failed  to  give  some  idea  of  the  army,  the 
ver\'  support  and  strength  of  that  great  empire,  would  be  in- 
complete. 

At  first,  as  in  Babylonia,  the  soldiers  when  needed  were 
recruited  from  peasants  in  the  field.  When  the  war  was  over, 
they  would  return  to  their  usual  tasks.  However,  Assyria 
with  her  many  conquests  felt  the  need  of  trained  soldiers, 
proficient  in  military  tactics.  To  the  standing  army  which 
grew  into  a  strong  body,  warriors  taken  captive  in  other  lands 

'This  reminds  one  of  the  snails,  etc.,  that  were  crushed  and  brewed  in 
small  beer  for  rickets  in  New  England.  See  Alice  Morse  Earlc,  "Customs 
and  Fashions  in  Old  New  Ei^land." 

-Arnold:  Stories  of  Ancient  Peoples,  123. 


SOCIAI,  LIFE  IN    MESOPOTAMIA.  325 

were  added.  In  course  of  a  few  generations  a  formidable 
army  was  thus  brought  into  being,  and  the  calling  of  a  soldier 
became  a  r^ular  profession.  Men  were  required  to  give  evi- 
dences of  skill  before  they  could  take  commands  of  Foments 
and  even  before  they  could  command  a  company  of  ten.  Mas- 
pero  has  made  an  extended  study  of  military'-  affairs  in  Assyria 
and  we  can  do  no  better  than  follow  the  results  he  has  reached 
in  his  investigation: 

"  The  Ass>Tian  army  is  the  best  organized  war  imchine 
that  the  world  has  yet  seen,*  It  is  superiority  of  weapons, 
not  any  superiority  in  courage  and  discipline,  that  has  secured 
to  the  Nine\-ite  kings  since  Sargon  the  priority  over  the 
Pharaohs  of  the  Delta,  of  Thebes  and  Meroe.  Whilst  the 
Egyptians,  as  a  rule,  still  fight  without  any  protection,  except 
the  shield,  the  Assyrians  are,  so  to  speak,  clothed  in  iron 
from  head  to  foot.  Their  hea\'y  infantry  is  composed  of 
spearmen  and  archers,  wearing  a  conical  cap  ornamented  with 
two  side  pieces  which  protect  the  ears,  a  leather  shirt  covered 
with  overlapping  metal  scales  which  protects  the  chest  and 
the  upper  part  of  the  arms,  close  fitting  breeches,  and  boots 
laced  in  front  The  spearmen  carry  spears  six  feet  long,  with 
an  iron  or  bronze  head,  a  short  sword  passed  through  their 
belt,  and  an  immense  metal  shidd,  sometimes  round  and  con- 
vex, sometimes  rounded  at  the  top  and  square  at  the  bottom. 
The  archers  have  no  shields;  they  replace  the  spear  by  a 
bow  and  quiver,  which  hang  over  their  back.  Their  light 
infantry  also  includes  some  spearmen,  but  they  wear  a  helmet 
with  a  curved  crest,  and  are  pro\'ided  with  a  small  round 
wicker-work  shield-  The  archers  have  no  breastplate,  and 
are  associated  either  with  slingers  or  with  soldiers  armed 
with  clubs  and  double-edged  axes. 

"  The  spearmen  and  archers  of  the  line  are  usually  of 
Ass>Tian  origin  or  levied  in  the  territories  that  have  been 
subject  to  Ass\-ria  for  a  long  time;  the  other  troops  are  often 
recruited  amongst  tributary  nations,  and  th^  wear  their 
national  costumes.  They  are  arranged  in  companies,  and 
manceu^Te  with  a  regularity  which  foreigners  themselves 
admire,  .  .  .  They  march  with  extraordinary  rapidity, 
leaving  no  stragglers  or  lame  men  behind  them  as  they  go, 

«The  narrative  is  s^  back  in  the  dajs  of  .Assyrian  Empire, 


326  thS  wqrIvD's  progress. 

and  their  generals  are  not  afraid  to  impose  fatigues  upon  them 
to  which  the  soldiers  of  other  lands  would  quickly  succumb. 
They  either  ford  the  rivers  or  swim  across  them  upon  inflated 
skins.  In  wooded  countries,  each  company  sends  forward 
a  certain  number  of  pioneers,  who  fell  the  trees  and  clear  a 
path. 

"  The  cavalry  are  divided  into  two  corps,  the  chariot 
soldiers  and  the  regular  cavalry.  The  Assyrian  war-chariot 
is  much  heavier  and  more  massive  than  the  Egyptian.  .  .  . 
Like  the  Egyptian  chariots,  the  Assyrians  always  charge  in 
a  regular  line,  and  there  are  few  troops  in  the  world  that 
can  resist  their  first  shock.  When  a  battalion  of  the  enemy 
sees  them  coming,  rapid  and  light,  their  darts  pointed,  their 
bows  strung,  they  usually  disband  immediately  after  the  first 
volley  of  arrows,  and  run  away.  The  line  is  then  broken, 
and  the  chariots  disperse  over  the  plain,  crushing  the  fugitives 
beneath  their  wheels,  and  trampling  them  under  their  horses' 
feet.     .    .    , 

"  Formerly  the  chariots  were  very  numerous  in  the  Assy- 
rian armies.  They  are  less  used  at  the  present  day,  but  tradi- 
tion gives  them  the  post  of  honour  and  the  king  or  the  chief 
general  always  reserves  for  himself  the  privilege  of  leading 
them  into  the  fight.  It  is  the  distinguished  branch  of  the  ser- 
vice, the  one  in  which  the  princes  and  great  nobles  prefer  tc 
serve,  and  its  weight  often  decides  the  fate  of  the  battle. 

"  Yet  now  the  cavalry  commences  to  rival  it,  if  not  m 
numbers,  at  jeast  in  importance.  .  .  .  The  horse  was  at 
first  ridden  bareback;  now  it  is  covered  with  one  cloth,  or 
with  a  complete  caparison  similar  to  that  of  the  chariot  horses. 
All  the  cavalry  wear  helmets  and  cuirasses  like  the  infantry 
of  the  line,  but  they  have  no  shields;  they  replace  the  floating 
petticoat  by  cotton  drawers.  One-half  of  them  carries  the 
sword  and  lance,  the  other  half  is  armed  with  a  bow  and 
sword. 

The  lance  is  eight  or  nine  feet  long,  the  bow  is  shorter 
than  the  bow  used  by  the  infantry,  and  the  arrows  are  scarcely 
three  feet  long.  Formerly  each  mounted  archer  was  accom- 
panied by  a  servant,  mounted  like  himself,  who  led  his  horse 
during  the  battle  so  as  to  leave  both  his  hands  free.  The  art 
of  riding  has  made  such  progress  during  the  last  few  years 


SOCIAL  UFE  IN    MESOPOTAMIA, 


3*7 


that  the  servant  has  become  useless,  and  has  disappeared  from 
the  armies.  Now  lancers  and  bowmen  are  all  trained  to  guide 
their  steed  by  the  pressure  of  the  knees,  and  they  may  be  seen 
galloping  with  flying  reins,  shooting  their  arrows  as  they  go, 
or  else  halting  suddenly,  they  quietly  discharge  the  arrow, 
then  turn  and  gallop  off  again.     .     .     . 

"  The  proportion  of  the  different  services  is  always  about 
the  same.  There  are,  on  an  average,  one  hundred  foot  soldiers 
to  every  ten  cavalry  and  every  single  chariot;  the  infantry  is 
really  the  queen  of  the  Assyrian  battles." ' 

*  Maspero:  Ancient  Egypt  and  Assyria,  320. 


THRESHOLD — SLAB  IN   ASSHURBANIPAL'S    PALACE. 


328  THB  wori^d's  progress. 

CHAPTER   XVII. 
The:  Medes. 

The  Medes  belonged  to  the  Indo-European  branch  of  the 
Aryan  race.  It  is  supposed  that  they  came  into  Europe  from 
the  far  east,  and  thence  migrated  to  Asia,  some  time  previous 
to  1000  B.  c.  They  settled  a  mountainous  tract  to  the  east 
of  Assyria,  occupying  a  district  rather  larger  than  Babylonia 
and  Assyria  together.  Because  of  its  rugged  mountains,  nar- 
row passes,  and  inclement  winter  weather,  their  country  was 
easily  defended  against  invaders.  In  the  days  of  Assyrian 
dominance,  the  people  of  Media  maintained  uniform  inde- 
pendence, notwithstanding  the  fact  that  military  kings  were 
annexing  territories  far  and  near  with  almost  irresistible  force. 
And  so  today,  those  who  live  in  this  district,  remain  compara- 
tively free  from  the  government  which  seeks  to  rule  them. 

For  the  history  of  this  ancient  nation  we  are  thrown  al- 
most wholly  upon  the  writings  of  Herodotus,  Xenophon  and 
other  Greek  travellers,  for  as  yet  no  antiquarian  has  attempted 
to  recover  Median  past  from  mounds  of  buried  ruins.  In- 
deed the  country  has  never  been  left  desolate  like  Babylonia, 
but  its  cities  fell  to  the  share  of  others,  and  later  generations, 
finding  material  for  new  buildings  in  the  structures  of  their 
predecessors,  have  left  no  mounds  to  allure  the  historian  and 
archaeologist.  Since  rich  finds  in  other  lands  have  in  recent 
years  thrown  unexpected  light  upon  the  past,  it  has  been 
surmised  that  beneath  the  present  cities,  in  this  land  of  ancient 
Media,  might  be  recovered  monuments  of  her  early  life.  So 
far,  however,  other  fields  have  proven  more  inviting  to  the 
explorer  and  the  excavator. 

In  spite  of  the  faults  of  credulence  and  exaggeration  so 
characteristic  of  Herodotus,  we  must  nevertheless  turn  to  his 
writings  and  to  those  of  Xenophon  for  Median  history. 

We  have  noted  that  during  the  eighth  century,  Assyria 
made  a  raid  into  Media.  The  independence  of  the  people 
was  not  disturbed  however.  This  verifies  the  statement  of 
Herodotus  that  the  Medians  made  good  soldiers,  hardy  and 


THE  STORY  OF  THE)   MEDES.  329 

well  able  to  defend  their  land.  They  were  trained  to  a  life 
of  physical  activity,  inured  to  the  hardships  of  a  rigorous 
climate.  Charging  on  horseback  at  full  speed,  they  made 
a  formidable  defense. 

In  their  early  conflicts  they  seem  to  have  displayed  ex- 
cessive cruelty  in  war,  showing  no  mercy  to  helpless  women 
or  innocent  children.  As  for  plunder,  they  cared  little  for 
it,  and  Isaiah  refers  to  them  as  "  the  Medes  who  care  not 
for  silver,  and  as  for  gold,  have  no  delight  in  it."^ 

By  frequent  plundering  raids  into  their  territory,  the 
Assyrians  incurred  the  lasting  hatred  of  the  Medes,  who, 
urged  on  by  a  spirit  of  revenge,  united  in  606  B.  c.  under  a 
Median  prince  to  aid  the  king  of  Babylonia  against  the  Assy- 
rian monarch.  Having  defeated  the  army,  the  Medes  pur- 
sued, and  shut  the  Assyrian  force  within  the  walls  of  Nineveh. 
Thereupon  they  made  an  assault  upon  the  defenses  of  the 
city  and  carried  the  day.  The  capital  of  Assyria  and  all  the 
wealthy  cities  of  the  realm  were  overrun,  plundered  and 
burned,  while  the  surviving  inhabitants  were  so  widely 
scattered  that  we  hear  no  more  about  them. 

Before  this  the  Medes  had  cared  little  for  luxury  and 
ease,  although  they  always  delighted  in  a  certain  barbaric 
splendor.  With  the  vast  treasure  of  Nineveh  their  king  now 
built  a  palace  of  extensive  proportions.  Its  halls  and  pillars 
were  of  woods,  its  courts  wide  and  the  whole  structure  mag- 
nificent. No  wood  was  left  visible,  all  being  concealed  by  a 
coating  of  silver  tiles.  Herodotus  wrote  thus  of  the  palace 
walls : 

"  The  walls  enclose  the  palace,  rising  in  circles,  one  within 
the  other.  The  plan  of  the  place  is  that  each  of  the  walls 
should  out-top  the  one  beyond  it  by  the  battlements.  The 
nature  of  the  ground,  which  is  a  gentle  slope,  favors  this 
arrangement  in  some  degree,  but  it  was  mainly  effected  by 
art.  The  number  of  the  circles  is  seven,  the  royal  palace  and 
the  treasuries  standing  within  the  last.  Of  the  outer  wall, 
the  battlements  are  white;  of  the  next,  black;  of  the  third, 
scarlet;  of  the  fourth,  blue;  of  the  fifth,  orange;  all  these  are 
covered  with  paint.  The  last,  two  have  their  battlements 
coated  respectively  with  silver  and  gold." 

We  may  gain  some  idea  of  the  wealth  represented  by  this 

'Isa.  13,  17.  The  chapter  is  late,  and,  as  Duhm  says,  the  fact  that  the 
redactor  ascribed  it  to  Isaiah  is  instructive  as  regards  the  want  of  critical 
abiHty  of  the  diaskenasts.    Craig. 


330  THE  world's  PROGRKSS. 

building  when  we  learn  that  the  king  of  Persia  carried  away 
the  greater  portion  of  the  gold  and  silver  decorations  for  his 
palace;  Alexander  the  Great  removed  the  silver  tiling  from 
the  roof,  and  some  seventy  years  later  another  conqueror 
found  about  $5,000,000  worth  of  gold  and  silver  plating 
overlooked  by  his  predecessors.  While  no  former  palace  may 
have  exceeded  this  in  actual  outlay  of  wealth,  others  may 
have  been  more  artistic,  for  the  Medes  reached  no  special 
architectural  skill. 

After  the  Assyrian  conquest,  the  Median  nation  soon  be- 
came weak  and  degenerate.  The  people  affected  a  life  of 
luxury  and  idleness.  The  king  lived  amidst  pomp  and  osten- 
tatious seclusion;  his  courtiers  and  nobles  gave  themselves  up 
to  immoderate  indulgences  and  amusements.  While  under 
Cyaxares  and  his  father,  Media  had  become  a  power  in  Asia, 
upon  the  death  of  this  king,  his  son  Astyages  succeeded  to 
the  throne.  He  had  grown  up  during  the  later  years  of 
ease  and  had  no  greater  ambition  than  to  rule  the  kingdom 
left  him,  no  more  animating  impulses  than  to  pass  his  days 
amid  the  ceremony  and  studied  formality  of  the  Median  court. 
Astyages  seems  to  have  planned  neither  political  activity  nor 
personal  diversion.  He  never  joined  in  the  hunts  which  were 
popular  with  his  courtiers.  Rather,  he  spent  his  leisure  with 
such  entertainment  as  his  palace  afforded  and  for  his  adminis- 
tration, depended  wholly  upon  the  reports  of  his  officials. 
Such  was  Media  when  a  Persian  king,  realizing  the  real  situa- 
tion, led  an  army  against  the  country.  In  connection  with 
our  study  of  Persia  we  shall  come  again  to  the  story  of  this 
conquest. 

Polygamy  was  always  allowed  by  the  code  of  Median 
laws  and  morals,  while  women  seem  to  have  been  treated 
with  a  certain  chivalrous  attention  and  deference.  The  civil- 
ization of  the  land  was  similar  to  that  of  Persia,  which  nation, 
it  is  supposed,  sprang  originally  from  the  same  stock.  No 
greater  difference  existed  betwen  the  two  peoples  than  might 
be  found  between  two  modern  Teutonic  nations. 

Education  and  learning  was  not  valued  in  either  country. 
Boys  were  taught  to  ride,  to  hunt,  to  shoot,  and  to  become 
proficient  in  out  of  door  sports  rather  than  the  arts  of  reading 
and  writing. 


ths  story  of  the  medes. 


331 


The  religion  was  akin  to  that  of  Persia,  and  the  faith  of 
the  Persians  was  singularly  pure.  They  like  the  Hebrews, 
worshipped  one  God.  No  degrading  ceremonies  and  teach- 
ings attached  to  their  forms  of  worship,  as. was  the  case  in 
Egypt  and  Babylonia.  The  most  ancient  writings  of  the 
Zenda- Vesta  appear  to  embody  the  faith  of  the  Medes,  and 
these  will  be  considered  in  connection  with  the  religion  of 
Persia. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  said  that  the  Medes  were  neither 
an  inventive  nor  an  ingenious  people,  nor  did  they  develop 
a  great  civilization,  culture,  or  literature.  Indeed  we  are 
forced  to  the  conclusion  of  Rawlinson:  they  scarcely  con- 
tributed an  idea  or  invention  to  the  great  store  of  knowledge 
transmitted  by  the  past  to  the  modern  world. 


RUINS   OF  PERSEPOLIS. 


332  THE  WORU>'S  PROGRESS. 


CHAPTER   XVIII. 
Persia  Before  the  Age  oe  Cyrus. 

The  origin  and  early  history  of  both  Medes  and  Persians 
were  similar.  When  first  the  Persians  are  mentioned  in 
Assyrian  annals,  they  had  migrated  to  the  region  east  of 
Assyria,  inhabiting  an  indefinite  district  which  later  became 
part  of  the  Median  state.  At  this  time — about  the  ninth 
century  before  the  Christian  era — they  were  not  united  under 
one  king,  but  each  clan  followed  the  leadership  of  a  chosen 
chieftain.  As  a  result  of  an  Assyrian  attack,  more  than 
twenty  of  these  chiefs  brought  tribute  and  acknowledged  the 
supremacy  of  the  great  king. 

Nothing  of  importance  is  again  heard  of  them  until  shortly 
before  the  fall  of  the  Assyrian  capital.  They  were  then  united 
into  a  kingdom,  serving  one  ruler,  and  living  in  what  has 
been  called  "  Persia  Proper,"  to  distinguish  the  original  state 
from  the  wide  empire  which  was  brought  at  length  under 
Persian  rule.  While  free  to  manage  their  internal  affairs, 
they  paid  tribute  to  Media,  now  a  vigorous  and  aggressive 
nation.  It  is  plain  then,  that  previous  to  the  fall  of  Nineveh, 
fhe  Persian  state  had  taken  no  part  in  Asiatic  affairs,  and 
furthermore,  was  not  yet  free  and  independent.  However,  in 
less  than  one  hundred  years  her  people  had  gained  control 
over  the  entire  western  portion  of  Asia,  extending  their  rule 
from  the  Indus  to  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  while  only  the  little 
Greek  nation  held  out  against  them  on  the  west. 

Before  entering  upon  a  study  of  this  rapid  imperial  ex- 
pansion, it  would  be  well  for  us  to  get  some  general  impres- 
sions of  the  comparatively  small  territory  in  which  the  various 
Persian  tribes  became  welded  into  a  united  people,  and  of 
the  conditions  in  the  original  kingdom  wherein  the  principles 
which  were  to  temporarily  dominate  the  ancient  world  were 
developed. 

Persia  Proper  consisted  of  an  area  of  about  450  miles  in 
length,  and  averaging  250  miles  in  width.  It  might  have 
been  roughly  bounded  on  the  south  and  west  by  the  gulf  which 


THE  STORY  O^  The  PERSIANS.  333 

came  to  bear  its  name,  while  a  desert  reached  off  to  the  east 
and  north,  save  where  Persian  territory  touched  upon  the 
Median  kingdom.  A  narrow  strip  of  arid  land  lay  between 
the  gulf  and  a  mountain  range,  making  up  perhaps  one  eighth 
of  the  entire  area.  The  climate  here  is  hot  and  dry,  the  soil 
marshy,  producing  little  growth  of  any  sort.  The  district 
east  of  this  range  was  irregularly  divided  into  highlands  and 
valleys,  lofty  rocks  and  winding  chasms.  Wherever  water 
was  available,  vegetation  was  luxuriant,  making  the  wild 
scenery  fantastic  and  attractive.  Generally  water  was  scarce, 
and  most  of  the  year  the  land  lay  parched  and  brown, 

"  The  region  east  of  the  range  is  of  varied  character.  In 
places  richly  fertile,  picturesque,  and  romantic  almost  beyond 
imagination,  with  lovely  wooded  dells,  green  mountain-sides, 
and  broad  plains  suited  for  the  production  of  almost  any  crops, 
it  has  yet  on  the  whole  a  predominant  character  of  sterility 
and  barrenness,  especially  towards  its  more  northern  and  east- 
ern portions.  The  supply  of  water  is  everywhere  scanty. 
Scarcely  any  of  the  streams  are  strong  enough  to  reach  the 
sea.  After  short  courses  they  are  either  absorbed  by  the  sand 
or  end  in  small  salt  lakes,  from  which  the  superfluous  water 
is  evaporated.  Much  of  the  country  is  absolutely  without 
streams,  and  would  be  uninhabitable  were  it  not  for  the  sub- 
terranean channels  of  spring-water. 

"  The  most  remarkable  feature  of  the  country  consists  in 
the  extraordinary  gorges  which  pierce  the  great  mountain- 
chain,  and  render  possible  the  establishment  of  routes  across 
that  tremendous  barrier.  Scarped  rocks  rise  almost  perpen- 
dicularly on  either  side  of  the  mountain  streams,  which  descend 
rapidly  with  frequent  cascades  and  falls.  Along  the  slight 
irregularities  of  these  rocks  the  roads  are  carried  in  zigzags, 
often  crossing  the  streams  from  side  to  side  by  bridges  of  a 
single  arch,  which  are  thrown  over  profound  chasms  where 
the  waters  chafe  and  roar  many  hundred  feet  below.  The 
roads  have  for  the  most  part  been  artificially  cut  in  the  sides 
of  the  precipices,  which  rise  from  the  streams  sometimes  to 
the  height  of  2,000  feet.  Thus  the  country  towards  the  edge 
of  the  plateau  is  peculiarly  safe  from  attack,  being  defended 
on  the  north  and  east  by  vast  deserts,  and  on  the  south  by  a 
mountain  barrier  of  unusual  strength  and  difficulty. 

1—23 


334  THE  WORLD'S   PROGRESS. 

"  It  is  in  these  regions,  which  combine  facility  of  defence 
with  pleasantness  of  climate,  that  the  principal  cities  of  the 
district  have  at  all  times  been  placed."  * 

It  appears  that  nearly  one-half  of  the  kingdom  was  prac- 
tically unsuited  for  habitation,  being  dry  and  producing  little 
to  sustain  life.  In  these  early  times  only  two  or  three  cities 
existed,  small  villages  making  up  the  remaining  social  centers, 
while  peasants  farmed  limited  portions  of  the  outlying 
country  where  the  water  supply  sufficed  to  maintain  crops. 

Various  fruits  abounded  in  the  mountainous  regions. 
Peaches  were  native  to  the  soil.  Grapes  grew  in  profusion, 
and  corn  and  vegetables  were  plentiful.  Along  the  coast  fish 
might  be  found  in  large  quantities  and  constituted  a  staple 
article  of  food  throughout  the  land.  The  natural  conditions 
were  not  sufficiently  favorable  to  allow  heavy  yields  of  grain 
or  to  make  agriculture  foremost  among  the  nation's  activities. 

The  Persians  were  active,  vivacious  people,  lacking  wholly 
the  repose  and  dignified  calm  so  characteristic  of  the  English, 
for  example.  They  concealed  neither  joy  nor  sorrow,  and 
were  immoderate  in  their  expressions  of  both. 

Learning  and  education  were  given  little  attention.  It 
has  become  a  trite  and  well-known  saying  that  "  Persian  boys 
were  taught  to  ride,  to  shoot,  and  to  speak  the  truth."  The 
religion  of  the  people  placed  truth  first  among  the  virtues. 
Their  steadfast  fidelity  to  a  promise  excited  wonderment 
among  the  nations.  Physical,  rather  than  mental,  develop- 
ment was  sought,  and  while  in  the  nation's  later  life  the 
people  gave  themselves  up  to  indolence,  passing  the  hours  with 
personal  adornment  and  feasting,  these  pastimes  did  not  char- 
acterize their  early  years. 

Like  the  Medes,  Persian  nobles  had  several  wives,  and 
polygamy  was  the  rule  rather  than  the  exception.  Women 
were  kept  in  well-nigh  complete  seclusion,  and  no  mention  is 
made  of  them,  nor  are  they  seen  in  pictures  adorning  the 
palaces. 

The  attitude  assumed  toward  the  sovereign  influenced  the 
very  character  of  the  people.  "  The  Persian  king  held  the 
same  rank  and  position  in  the  eyes  of  his  subjects  which  the 
great  monarch  of  Western  Asia,  whoever  he  might  be,  had 

*Rawlin8on;  Persia. 


TH:e  STORY   OF  THE  PERSIANS.  335 

always  occupied  from  time  immemorial.  He  was  the  lord 
and  master,  absolute  disposer  of  their  lives,  liberties,  and 
property ;  the  sole  fountain  of  law  and  right,  incapable  himself 
of  doing  wrong,  irresponsible,  irresistible — a  sort  of  God  on 
earth;  one  whose  favor  was  happiness,  at  whose  frown  men 
trembled,  before  whom  all  bowed  themselves  down  with  the 
lowest  and  humblest  obeisance. 

"  The  feeling  of  the  Persian  towards  his  king  is  one  of 
which  moderns  can  with  difficulty  form  a  conception.  In  Persia 
the  monarch  was  so  much  the  State,  that  patriotism  itself  was, 
as  it  were,  swallowed  up  in  loyalty ;  and  an  unquestioning  sub- 
mission, not  only  to  the  deliberate  will,  but  to  the  merest 
caprice  of  the  sovereign,  was,  by  habit  and  education,  so  in- 
grained into  the  nature  of  the  people  that  a  contrary  spirit 
scarcely  ever  manifested  itself.  In  war  the  safety  of  the 
sovereign  was  the  first  thought,  and  the  principal  care  of  all. 
If  the  king  suffered,  all  was  lost;  if  the  king  escaped,  the 
greatest  calamities  seemed  light  and  could  be  endured  with 
patience.  The  same  cheerful  submission  characterized  times 
of  peace.  It  was  here  that  their  loyalty  became  a  defect  rather 
than  a  virtue.  The  voice  of  remonstrance,  of  rebuke,  of  warn- 
ing, was  unheard  at  Court.  Tyranny  was  allowed  to  indulge 
unchecked  in  the  wildest  caprices  and  extravagances.  The 
father,  whose  innocent  son  was  shot  before  his  eyes  by  the 
king  in  pure  wantonness,  instead  of  raising  an  indignant  pro- 
test against  the  crime,  felicitated  him  upon  the  excellence  of 
his  archery.  Thus  a  tone  of  servility  was  engendered  which, 
sapping  self-respect,  tended  fatally  to  lower  and  corrupt  the 
entire  character  of  the  people."  * 

Such  were  the  tendencies  of  the  embryo  state  which  under 
the  leadership  of  a  great  ruler  was  soon  to  burst  into  sudden 
and  brilliant  flower,  absorbing  in  a  single  campaign  nations 
which  had  never  before  been  united. 

Cyrus  the  Great  and  the  Persian  Empire. 

In  ages  when  monarchs  were  absolute  in  the  foremost 
countries  of  the  world,  the  personal  ability  of  the  king  was 
a  matter  of  far  greater  concern  than  we  today  realize.  In 
modern  times,  political  and  social  changes  have  had  their  be- 

2  Rawlinson :  PersiJ*.- 


336  The  world's  progriiss. 

ginnings  in  the  conditions  and  desires  of  the  people.  In  the 
remote  years  we  are  now  studying,  the  people  were  less  con- 
sidered, and  their  wishes  seldom  heard.  The  personal  char- 
acter of  the  king  determined  the  policy  of  the  ancient  state. 
We  have  already  seen  how  the  welfare — the  very  fate  of 
Egypt,  Babylonia  and  Assyria  depended  upon  their  rulers. 
Even  more  pronounced  was  this  in  Persia,  where  subjects, 
including  nobles  and  princes,  acted  in  unthinking  submission 
to  a  degree  unknown  in  other  lands. 

In  taking  up  the  career  of  Cyrus  the  Great  we  are  largely 
dependent  upon  the  writings  of  Herodotus  and  Xenophon. 
Of  Herodotus  we  have  learned  something,  and  concerning 
Xenophon  we  may  note  that  besides  being  a  writer  and  a 
traveller,  he  was  also  an  experienced  and  able  general. 
Herodotus  lived  some  fifty  years  after  the  death  of  Cyrus, 
and  Xenophon  was  thirty  years  younger  than  Herodotus. 
Both  Greeks  wrote  at  length  of  the  great  Persian  King. 

When  Astyages  ascended  the  throne  of  Media,  Persia  was 
a  mere  tribute-paying  kingdom,  insignificant  not  only  in  politi- 
cal strength,  but  in  social  life,  wealth,  and  culture.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  Cyrus  was  sent  to  the  Median  court  as  a  hostage 
from  a  tribute  land.  His  father  ruled  in  Persia,  and  we  are 
told  that  he  was  greatly  impressed  as  a  boy  by  the  difference 
between  the  two  countries.  The  subjects  over  whom  his 
father  ruled  were  many  of  them  soldiers  whose  days  were 
spent  with  training  and  physical  exercise.  They  ate  and  drank 
moderately,  and  while  they  lacked  the  culture  and  refinement 
of  the  northern  kingdom,  they  were  just  coming  into  the 
strength  and  vigour  which  the  Medians  lost  upon  their  con- 
quest of  Assyria  and  subsequent  abundance  of  wealth. 

Tradition  pictures  the  youth  clinging  to  the  simple  habits 
of  his  early  life,  and  caring  little  for  the  pomp  and  ceremony 
around  him.  He  delighted  in  riding  and  liked  the  hunt  best 
of  all  amusements,  while  he  shortly  became  the  companion 
of  Astyages  during  the  king's  leisure  hours,  bringing  refresh- 
ing life  and  boyish  candor  into  a  degenerate  court. 

Some  years  later  Cyrus  returned  home  and,  shortly  after, 
a  faction  of  the  Medes  who  had  become  devoted  to  the  Persian 
prince  and  felt  dissatisfied  with  the  tyranny  of  their  king, 
informed  Cyrus  that  if  he  would  bring  an  army  against  the 


TH^  story  0^  THE  PERSIANS.  337 

Medes,  they  would  cause  the  Median  forces  to  desert  to  him. 
Another  account  says  that  Cyrus  himself  planned  the  conquest 
while  at  the  Median  court,  and  having  feasted  his  attendants 
and  led  them  to  drink  heavily,  escaped  to  Persia,  where  he 
soon  persuaded  his  father  to  march  against  the  Medes.  In 
either  case,  it  would  seem  that  the  prince  had  learned  the  true 
condition  of  degenerated  Media,  and  determined  to  free  his 
own  land  from  the  hated  tribute  service — establishing  its 
independence. 

In  the  battle  which  was  waged  against  the  two  people, 
Astyages  was  taken  captive,  and  when  the  majority  of  the 
soldiers  went  over  to  the  Persian  side,  the  remaining  soldiers 
fled.  Cyrus  allowed  Astyages  to  retain  his  own  personal 
attendants,  and  permitted  him  to  live  in  a  style  befitting  his 
recent  position.  Under  guard  of  Persian  soldiers,  he  was  free 
to  go  about  at  will. 

It  is  probable  that  Cyrus  had  at  first  no  greater  ambition 
than  to  free  Persia  from  tribute  imposed  by  Media,  but  the 
desire  for  conquest  once  awakened  never  ceases  while  lands 
remain  unwon.  In  conquering  Media,  all  territories  of 
Assyria  fell  to  Cyrus'  portion.  The  Medes  had  held  lands  to 
the  river  Halys  on  the  northwest.  Beyond  this  boundary 
stream  the  empire  of  Lydia  had  been  growing  under  the  rule 
of  Croesus. 

Croesus  has  become  proverbial  for  his  wealth.  As  he  ex- 
tended the  boundaries  of  Lydia,  he  grew  wealthier  still, 
until  his  resources  exceeded  all  estimate.  Having  lost  a 
favorite  son)  he  lived  in  seclusion  until  a  sense  of  approaching 
danger  roused  him  to  defend  his  kingdom.  The  river  Halys 
was  a  narrow  stream — too  small  by  far  to  prove  a  lasting 
barrier  against  an  aggressive  nation.  To  spare  his  land  the 
ravages  of  war,  Croesus  determined  to  invade  the  land  of  his 
rival.  He  thought  best  to  consult  the  oracle  at  Delphi  before 
entering  upon  such  a  serious  campaign.  Having  sent  costly 
presents  to  Delphi,  Croesus  inquired  whether  or  not  it  would 
be  safe  for  him  to  proceed  against  Persia.  The  reply  was 
that  if  Croesus  crossed  the  Halys  and  carried  war  into  Persia, 
a  mighty  kingdom  would  be  overthrown,  and  that  he  would 
do  well  to  form  an  alliance  with  the  strongest  Greek  state. 

Regarding  the  answer  as  favorable,  he  sent  word  to  Sparta 


338  TH^  worIvD's  progress. 

that,  since  he  was  advised  by  the  Delphian  oracle  to  seek  the 
strongest  Greek  state  as  an  ally,  he  solicitated  their  assistance. 
These  Spartans  were  unlike  any  soldiers  we  have  yet  met; 
they  fought  for  glory,  not  for  plunder.  They  were  glad,  of 
course,  to  be  considered  the  strongest  Grecian  state,  and  sent 
the  assistance  asked.  With  such  re-enforcements,  Croesus 
crossed  the  Halys  and  met  Cyrus  who  had  known  of  thq 
Lydian  movement  and  was  ready  for  an  attack.  The  battle 
was  fought  near  Pterie;  both  sides  lost  heavily,  and  Croesua 
thought  Cyrus  was  too  crippled  to  longer  advance,  so  he  him- 
self returned  to  Sardis,  his  capital,  to  make  plans  for  a  new 
campaign  the  following  year.  Cyrus  waited  until  the  Lydian 
troops  were  largely  disbanded,  and  then  suddenly  appeared 
before  Sardis.  Consternation  swept  over  the  Lydians,  but 
they  trusted  to  their  cavalry  which  was  numerous  and  well 
disciplined.  Cyrus  had  also  taken  the  Lydian  cavalry  into 
account,  and  had  ordered  his  camels  which  carried  the  equip- 
ment of  war,  to  face  the  horse,  and  if  possible,  to  put  them 
to  flight.  In  the  battle  fought  such  was  the  result — the  horses 
turned  in  confusion  upon  the  charge  of  the  camels,  and  the 
Lydian  army  withdrew  into  Sardis  to  undergo  a  siege.  They 
expected  to  win  in  the  long  run,  for  they  had  sufficient  stores 
of  all  kinds,  and  they  hoped  that  outside  aid  would  come 
sooner  or  later.  Cyrus  understood  the  danger  of  delay,  and 
determined  to  carry  the  city  by  assault.  By  scaling  a  nearly 
perpendicular  embankment,  entrance  to  Sardis  was  gained, 
and  Croesus  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  great  Persian  conqueror. 
He  was  given  considerate  treatment.  Few  cruelties  disfigure 
the  pages  of  Persian  history,  and  never  were  severe 
punishments  meted  out  wholesale  to  captives  in  war.  Those 
who  betrayed  confidence  were  harshly  dealt  with,  and  rebels 
seldom  escaped,  but  the  Persians  were  generally  fair-minded. 
Cyrus  was  uniformly  mild  and  generous,  lacking  the  inordi- 
nate pride  of  most  Oriental  monarchs,  treating  his  subjects 
with  kindness.  Croesus  became  one  of  his  trusted  companions, 
and  accompanied  him  upon  his  later  campaigns.  The  story 
of  the  funeral  pyre  is  probably  an  invention  of  the  Greeks, 
or,  if  it  had  any  foundation  whatever,  it  may  be  that  Croesus 
requested  such  an  honorable  end  in  preference  to  swearing 
allegiance  to  an  unknown  conqueror. 


THS  story  of  THK  PERSIANS.  339 

When  measures  had  been  taken  for  the  government  of 
Lydia,  attention  turned  to  Babylonia.  There,  as  we  have  seen, 
the  crown  was  worn  by  a  king  who  was  more  interested  in  the 
temples  of  the  gods  than  in  the  immediate  welfare  of  his  nation. 
His  son  Belshazzar  made  some  defense  outside  the  capital,  but 
a  faction  within  the  city,  out  of  sympathy  with  the  existing 
government,  allowed  the  Persians  to  take  possession.  Cyrus 
now  allowed  the  Jews  to  return  to  Jerusalem  and  there  to 
rebuild  their  temple  and  to  make  their  homes  in  the  land  of 
their  fathers.  For  this  reason  the  Hebrews  had  only  words 
of  praise  for  Cyrus.  To  the  number  of  49,697,  with  their 
property  and  possessions,  they  set  upon  their  long  march — a 
peaceful  band  which  encountered  no  opposition  throughout  its 
course.     The  event  stands  unparalleled  in  history. 

Had  Cyrus  lived,  he  would  doubtless  have  added  Egypt 
to  his  empire.  This  was  left  for  his  son  to  accomplish.  The 
great  king  fell  fighting  for  territories  in  the  north. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  said  that  Cyrus  is  the  first  great 
conqueror  we  have  so  far  met  who  was  kind  and  humane. 
His  policy  towards  the  conquered  stands  out  in  marked  relief 
to  the  butcheries  and  punishments  which  characterized  Assyria. 
Notwithstanding,  all  charges  of  selfish  motives  which  have 
belonged  to  those  who  have  sought  to  become  world-conquer- 
ors, attach  to  Cyrus.  Urged  on  by  personal  vanity  and  hope 
of  becoming  supreme,  he  considered  only  the  final  issue  and 
allowed  his  ambition  to  triumph  over  his  nobler  nature.  Some 
years  later  Alexander  emulated  his  example,  and  one  hundred 
years  ago  Napoleon  undertook  the  same  gigantic  task — greater 
in  his  day — of  building  up  a  world-empire.  The  motives 
prompting  all  three  were  the  same,  and  in  each  case  the 
empires,  so  quickly  brought  into  being,  vanished  as  quickly 
as  they  -qrose. 


340  THE  world's  progress. 

CHAPTER   XIX. 
War  with  Greece. 

Upon  the  death  of  Cyrus,  in  529  b.  c,  his  son  Cambyses 
succeeded  to  the  throne,  while  a  younger  brother  Smerdis, 
was  left  to  supervise  certain  provinces,  according  to  his 
father's  wishes.  The  conquest  of  Egypt  had  been  planned 
by  Cyrus  and  would  undoubtedly  have  been  undertaken  by 
him  had  he  lived.  Cambyses  at  once  began  preparations  to 
this  end  and  these  occupied  some  considerable  period. 

This  young  prince  who  had  just  come  into  absolute  power, 
apparently  inherited  all  his  father's  failings  and  few  of  his 
virtues.  He  had  never  learned  to  control  himself  and  thai 
omened  ill  for  those  who  became  his  subjects.  His  jealousy, 
suspicion,  cruelty,  and  arrogant  pride  contrasted  strikingly 
with  the  generous,  kindly  temperament  of  Cyrus.  Before  set- 
ting out  for  Egypt,  he  had  his  brother  secretly  murdered.  No 
rumor  of  this  crime  reached  his  subjects,  however. 

Egypt  at  this  time  was  not  able  to  defend  herself  against 
an  army  that  had  become  experienced  and  confident  under  the 
command  of  Cyrus;  consequently,  the  country  fell  rapidly 
into  the  hands  of  the  new  Persian  king.  Far  from  showing 
the  leniency  of  his  father  toward  the  vanquished,  he  marked 
his  victories  with  needless  cruelty. 

The  two  great  powers  of  Africa  besides  Egypt  were  the 
states  of  Ethiopia  in  the  south,  and  Carthage  in  the  northwest. 
Of  the  former  we  learned  something  in  The  Story  of  Egypt; 
of  the  latter  we  shall  learn  later  on.  Suffice  it  to  say 
here  that  the  Carthaginians  were  colonists  of  the  Phoenicians, 
and,  like  them,  were  traders  whose  commerce  penetrated  to  all 
lands  washed  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

When  Egypt  lay  at  his  feet,  Cambyses  resolved  to  make 
himself  supreme  in  the  whole  continent  of  Africa — only  the 
northern  portion  of  the  continent  was  then  known.  Accord- 
ingly, he  directed  troops  to  advance  against  these  two  powers 
which  he  thought  alone  worthy  of  his  notice.  Now  Carthage 
could  only  be  taken  by  sea,  and  the  king  was  limited  to 


THE  STORY  OF  THE  PERSIANS.  341 

Phoenician  vessels,  manned  by  Phoenician  sailors.  These  men 
promptly  refused  to  make  war  on  their  own  colony,  whose 
interests  were  so  closely  interwoven  with  those  of  their 
country.  Their  stand  must  have  been  united  and  firm,  for 
Cambyses  found  himself  obliged  to  abandon  his  project.  The 
expedition  to  the  south  was  disheartening.  The  Persian 
soldiers  were  unused  to  the  hot  sands  and  intense  sun  of 
Nubia  and  great  loss  and  discouragement  overtook  the  army. 
Those  who  withstood  the  heat  were  too  exhausted  by  the 
march  to  accomplish  anything.  The  king  remained  in  Egypt. 
He  was  constantly  haunted  by  his  crime  against  his  brother. 
He  realized  his  unpopularity  with  his  subjects,  and  feared 
that  disaster  would  at  any  time  overtake  him.  His  fears  were 
shortly  reflected  in  his  soldiers,  who  having  learned  that  they 
were  no  longer  led  by  one  who  could  bring  victory  in  the  face 
of  opposing  obstacles,  lost  heart  and  fought  indifferently. 

Herodotus  wrote  at  length  concerning  the  conduct  of  Cam- 
byses in  Egypt  and  his  stories  were  long  credited.  Tales  were 
told  of  Cambyses'  profaning  Egyptian  temples,  desecrating 
the  tombs  of  the  dead,  stabbing  the  apis-bull  with  his  own 
sword,  outraging  the  priests  and  inflicting  such  injury  upon  the 
nobles  as  only  the  madness  which  they  attribute  to  him,  could 
explain.  In  recent  years  these  statements  have  been  modified 
by  investigation.  An  Egyptologist  of  first  rank  claims  that 
the  tale  regarding  the  apis-bull  was  not  well  founded.  Un- 
questionably Cambyses  was  brutal  in  his  treatment  of  a  mild 
and  gentle  people,  and  he  may  have  easily  incurred  the  wrath 
of  the  priesthood  by  his  contempt  for  their  religion,  certain 
features  of  which  he  regarded  as  mere  folly.  It  is  also  prob- 
able that  his  deeds  have  been  greatly  exaggerated  by  those 
who  had  cause  to  hate  him  for  his  interference  with  a  land 
to  which  he  had  no  just  claim.  Instead  of  being  insane,  he 
no  doubt  displayed  his  ungovernable  temper  and  in  moments 
of  rage,  gave  orders  which  he  would  gladly  have  recalled  in 
another  mood. 

While  Cambyses  loitered  in  Egypt,  a  report  spread  through 
the  empire  that  Smerdis  had  been  crowned,  and  that  Cambyses 
need  no  longer  be  regarded  as  king.  One  of  the  Magians,  a 
priesthood  of  Persia  which  represented  a  more  material  form 
of  worship  than   the   teachings   of   Zoroaster   allowed,   had 


342  The  world's  progress. 

attempted  to  usurp  the  throne  in  Cambyses'  absence.  The 
real  king,  feehng  depressed  with  his  partial  victory,  doubting 
the  fidelity  of  his  army,  confessed  the  murder  of  his  brother 
to  his  ministers.  Having  thus  disclosed  the  presumption  of 
the  pretender,  Cambyses  committed  suicide. 

Darius,  a  prince  of  the  house  of  Cyrus,  was  chosen  to 
succeed.  This  was  a  choice  likely  to  prove  acceptable  to  the 
people,  for  he  was  the  only  legitimate  heir  to  the  throne. 
Herodotus  explained  with  all  gravity  that  the  counsellors  of 
state,  of  whose  number  Darius  was  one,  agreed  to  determine 
the  succession  after  this  fashion :  they  would  each  go  on  horse- 
back at  sunrise  to  the  city  gate,  and  he  whose  horse  neighed 
first  should  be  proclaimed  king! 

The  Magian  was  Killed.  ~ 

When  the  people  finally  learned  the  truth  and  realized 
how  great  a  deception  had  been  practised,  they  turned  against 
his  priesthood  and  instigated  a  general  massacre.  The  wor- 
ship they  had  established  was  cast  aside  and  the  purer  faith 
of  ancient  Persia  was  restored.  The  pretender  had  compelled 
the  Jews  to  cease  labor  on  the  new  temple  they  were  building 
in  Jerusalem.  Darius  gave  them  permission  to  continue.  So 
similar  were  the  religions  of  the  Hebrews  and  Persians,  that 
there  could  be  no  friction  between  the  two  nations  on  that 
ground  in  an  age  when  nearly  all  religions  were  polytheistic. 

Darius  was  long  occupied  with  internal  disturbances. 
Revolts  were  put  down  with  severity.  When  the  govern- 
ment of  the  empire  was  firmly  established,  it  was  superior  to 
any  before  kno\vn  in  Asia.  The  whole  empire  was  divided 
into  satrapies,  or  provinces — each  under  a  resident  governor; 
these  governors  made  frequent  reports  to  the  capital  and  the 
opportunity  for  revolts  was  slight. 

Internal  concerns  thus  settled,  Darius  turned  to  conquest. 
He  conducted  a  campaign  in  the  east,  pushing  Persia's  pos- 
sessions to  the  banks  of  the  Indus. 

It  was  natural  that  the  king  should  have  cast  longing  eyes 
westward,  toward  the  beautiful  isles  and  states  of  Greece. 
Long  before  the  age  of  Cyrus,  Greek  colonists  had  settled  in 
Asia  Minor.  They  had  fallen  to  the  share  of  Persia  when 
Lydia  was  conquered,  and  Darius  had  organized  their  local 


The;  story  of  ths  pe^rsians.  343 

government  so  completely  that  the  freedom-loving  Greeks 
were  oppressed  by  it  and  in  500  b.  c.  revolted.  These  Greek 
cities  appealed  to  Athens  for  aid  in  their  struggle  for  liberty. 
A  few  soldiers  were  sent,  and  with  such  aid  they  displaced 
the  Persian  government  and  destroyed  Sardis.  Darius  sent 
an  army  to  put  down  the  revolt,  and  the  city  which  had  led 
the  struggle  was  destroyed.  The  king  of  Persia  now 
determined  to  punish  Athens  for  having  given  help  to  the 
revolting  Greek  cities  of  Asia  Minor.  Accordingly,  he  fitted 
out  an  expedition  to  conquer  Greece.  The  naval  forces  were 
wrecked  in  a  storm  and  the  land  forces  were  routed  by  hostile 
tribes  en  route.  A  second  expedition  was  prepared,  more 
numerous  and  better  equipped  than  the  first.  Before  dis- 
patching it,  however,  Darius  sent  heralds  to  the  various  Greek 
states  to  inquire  if  they  would  submit  peacefully.  They 
replied  with  great  scorn.  In  490  b.  c.  the  Persian  king  sent 
300,000  soldiers  to  conquer  Greece.  The  battle  of  Marathon 
was  fought,  and  owing  to  the  skill  of  Miltiades,  the  Greeks 
won.  Four  years  later  Darius  died  and  Xerxes  ruled  in  his 
stead.  To  him  was  left  the  duty  of  wiping  out  the  inglorious 
defeat  of  the  Persian  arms.  Not  until  480  b.  c.  were  the 
armies  ready  for  what  was  expected  to  be  a  great  conquest. 
It  has  been  said  that  never  in  the  history  of  the  world 
has  such  a  motley  array  of  soldiers  been  gathered  together 
under  one  commander.  All  nations  subservient  to  Persia  were 
represented,  and  while  Herodotus  may  have  overstated  their 
number,  we  may  accept  his  statement  that  it  was  the  largest 
force  ever  thus  far  marshalled  together.  At  the  defense  of 
Thermopylae  the  Persians  learned  the  character  of  their  oppon- 
ents, A  little  band  of  three  hundred  Spartans  under  com- 
mand of  Leonidas  held  the  entire  Persian  army  at  bay  in  a 
narrow  pass  for  two  days.  When  the  army  spread  out  over 
the  land,  the  Greeks  realized  their  inability  to  cope  with  it 
and  decided  to  hazard  all  on  a  naval  engagement.  The  famous 
battle  of  Salamis  followed,  in  which  1,000  men-of-war  belong- 
ing to  the  Persians  were  destroyed  or  put  to  flight  by  300 
Greek  vessels.  Xerxes  watched  the  fight  from  a  throne  hastily 
constructed  for  him  on  the  shore.  When  at  night  his  naval 
forces  withdrew  to  Asia,  he  could  scarcely  credit  the  outcome. 
Byron  has  immortalized  the  occasion  in  a  stanza: 


344  THE  worIvD's  progress. 

"  A  king  sate  on  the  rocky  brow 

Which  looks  o'er  sea-born  Salamis; 
And  ships,  by  thousands,  lay  below. 

And  men  in  nations — all  were  his! 
He  counted  them  at  break  of  day — 

And  when  the  sun  set  where  were  they  ?  " 

Leaving  a  strong  land  force  to  conquer  the  Greeks  the 
next  year,  Xerxes  returned  to  Persia.  By  the  following 
spring  the  Greeks  had  gathered  their  forces,  and  inspired  by 
their  glorious  victory  at  Salamis,  they  defeated  the  Persian 
army  in  the  battle  of  Platsea.  Thereupon  the  Greek  cities 
in  Asia  Minor  asserted  their  freedom,  and  Greek  independence 
shone  forth  triumphantly  before  the  world. 

"  But  this  glorious  struggle  and  triumph  of  the  few  lifted 
to  superhuman  heroism  by  an  ennobling  moral  principle,  as 
against  the  merely  brutal  force  of  numbers,  does  not  properly 
belong  any  more  to  the  history  of  the  East,  nor  to  that  of 
remote  antiquity;  it  is  the  dawn  of  a  new  star  in  the  West, 
and  of  times  which,  from  their  spirit,  actors,  and  achieve- 
ments, may  almost  be  called  modern.  At  the  bottom  of  the 
new  departure  lies  the  difference  between  the  ideals — the  con- 
ceptions of  beauty  and  dignity  of  the  political  and  social  life 
— set  up  by  the  Oriental  and  Western  man :  *  A  good 
master ! '  is  the  prayer  and  ideal  of  the  Asiatic.  *  No  master ! 
Liberty  at  any  price,  as  the  highest  good  in  itself ! '  is  that 
of  the  Greek.  And  the  Greek  wins  the  day,  for  his  own 
time,  and  for  his  own  race,  and  for  future  times  and  races 
to  come."  * 

The  following  period,  embracing  nearly  150  years,  was 
a  time  of  decay  and  degeneracy.  With  Xerxes  began  the  cor- 
ruption of  the  Persian  court — the  licentiousness,  assassina- 
tions, murders,  and  accompanying  crimes  which  soon  under- 
mined the  entire  social  order.  Conditions  were  such  that 
rulers  were  no  longer  strong,  vigorous  men,  full  of  life  and 
ambition — save  indeed  those  usurpers  who  occasionally  appro- 
priated the  reins  of  government.  The  days  of  Persian  great- 
ness were  over,  and  under  guidance  of  one  or  another  of  the 

•Ragozin:  Persia. 


THB  story  of  The   PERSIANS. 


345 


princes,  the  state  plunged  on  to  ruin.  In  336  b.  c,  Alexander, 
the  young  king  of  Macedonia,  embarked  upon  his  world  con- 
quests, and  the  Persian  Empire  merged  into  the  Empire  of 
Greece. 


the  persian  king 
(with  attendants). 


34^  th^  worIvD's  progress. 

CHAPTER   XX. 
Manners  and  Customs  Among  the  Persians. 

There  were  wide  differences  between  the  civilization  of 
the  Persians  and  of  the  dwellers  in  the  Tigris-Euphrates 
valleys.  The  Persian  despised  trade.  His  religion  taught 
him  to  speak  the  truth,  and  he  regarded  commercial  dealings 
as  incompatible  with  this  requirement.  No  shops  made  the 
principal  streets  in  his  country  the  scenes  of  hot  disputes  con- 
cerning prices  and  wares.  The  few  shops  which  existed  at 
all  were  tucked  into  obscure  places  on  unfrequented  by-ways. 
It  naturally  followed  that  there  was  an  absence  of  those  in- 
dustrial centers  which  in  Babylonia  produced  rare  stuffs,  deli- 
cate fabrics  and  ornaments.  Swarms  of  slaves  provided  what- 
ever was  required  by  the  wealthy,  and  it  was  the  Persian's 
boast  that  his  sword  brought  him  the  luxury  of  the  world  in 
tribute. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  the  total  population  of  Persia 
did  not  exceed  2,000,000.  A  small  proportion  of  these  were 
peasants  who  tilled  the  arable  soil.  Agriculture  was  held 
honorable  and  was  encouraged  by  the  national  religion.  The 
great  majority  of  men  were  soldiers. 

Since  the  soldier's  life  was  thought  to  be  worthy  of  a 
Persian,  we  may  do  well  to  consider  whatever  features  char- 
acterized the  service  in  this  empire.  Probably  because  of  the 
mountainous  country  in  which  they  dwelt,  chariots  were  never 
popular  with  these  people.  Ordinarily  they  were  impractical, 
being  suited  to  plains  and  accessible  places.  Nevertheless  a 
few  were  used  and  these  were  furnished  with  scythes  attached 
to  the  axle.  Chariots  formed  the  front  line  of  defense.  Be- 
hind them  the  foot  soldiers  were  arranged  in  squares,  with 
cavalry  on  the  wings.  One  commander — the  king,  if  he 
were  present, — gave  commands  to  all  from  his  position  in  the 
center.  This  was  an  evident  fault,  for,  were  he  killed  or  in 
any  way  disabled,  the  entire  army  sometimes  took  fright  and 
fled.  When  the  charge  was  made,  the  chariots  dashed  ahead, 
hewing  right  and  left.  They  seldom  failed  to  break  the  solid 
line  drawn  up  before  them,  whereupon  the  infantry  and  horse 


SOCIAL   UFE   IN    PERSIA.  347 

followed,  taking  advantage  of  the  confusion  thus  wrought. 
If  the  regular  line  of  Persian  soldiery  was  broken  or  in  any- 
way disturbed,  since  they  had  no  reinforcements  in  a  second 
division,  the  battle  was  almost  always  lost.  To  prevent  such 
an  occurrence  was  their  aim.  It  has  been  said  that  the  Ori- 
entals of  this  time  could  not  be  trusted  to  fight  unless  they 
were  well  supported  at  the  rear — hence  the  custom  of  form- 
ing one  deep  line.  The  native  Persians  were  brave  soldiers, 
but  their  ranks  were  generally  composed  largely  of  subjects 
levied  throughout  the  empire.  Scantily  clothed  Nubians 
fought  with  clubs  and  stones  in  the  same  army  with  well- 
equipped  natives.  Drawn  up  by  nation,  in  native  custom,  it 
is  not  surprising  that  they  presented  a  sight  marvellous  indeed 
to  the  foreigner. 

The  contrast  between  Greek  and  Persian  military  tactics 
was  marked.  The  Greeks  trusted  to  their  solid,  heavily-armed 
phalanx;  the  Persians  tried  to  equip  themselves  as  lightly 
as  possible,  and  trusted  to  their  agility  and  swiftness  of 
motion.  Their  leniency  toward  captives  has  been  mentioned 
before.     They  found  no  delight  in  mere  slaughter. 

Literature  and  learning  had  little  part  in  the  life  of  the 
average  citizen.  The  boy  was  left  with  his  mother  until  five 
years  of  age.  Then  his  education  began.  He  rose  before 
dawn  and  was  trained  in  running,  throwing  stones,  and  shoot- 
ing with  an  arrow.  At  seven  he  was  taught  to  ride,  and  in 
Persia  this  implied  much.  He  must  be  able  to  spring  on  a 
horse  running  at  full  speed,  to  shoot  accurately  when  under 
rapid  motion.  In  course  of  a  few  years'  practice  it  was  not 
strange  that  a  Persian  was  never  so  at  ease  as  on  his  horse. 
Furthermore,  he  was  compelled  to  endure  severe  hardships — ■ 
sleeping  under  the  open  sky,  eating  only  one  meal  in  two  days, 
making  long  marches,  and  swimming  streams  burdened  with 
his  weapons.  At  fifteen  years  of  age  he  was  considered  a 
man  and  was  enlisted  in  the  army,  where  he  ordinarily  served 
until  fifty. 

During  the  period  of  the  Persian  empire,  a  numerous  body 
of  officials  made  up  the  king's  retinue.  Besides  the  farmers, 
soldiers  and  officials,  there  were  many  slaves,  who  completed 
the  social  body.  They  performed  all  kinds  of  labor,  built 
the  palaces  and  made  fine  roads  throughout  the  realm. 


348  th^  worIvD's  progress. 

The  Persian  court  has  probably  never  been  excelled  in 
ceremony  and  pomp.  Ceremony  surrounded  the  monarch  dur- 
ing hours  of  retirement  and  seclusion  as  well  as  when  before 
the  public  eye. 

"  The  officers  in  most  close  attendance  on  the  monarch's 
person  were,  in  war,  his  charioteer,  his  stool-bearer,  his  bow- 
bearer,  and  his  quiver-bearer ;  in  peace,  his  parasol-bearer,  and 
his  fan-bearer,  who  was  also  privileged  to  carry  what  has 
been  termed  the  *  royal-handkerchief.'  Among  the  officers 
of  the  Court,  less  closely  attached  to  the  person  of  the  monarch 
than  these,  may  be  mentioned  the  steward  of  the  household; 
the  groom  or  master  of  the  horse ;  the  keeper  of  the  women's 
department,  the  king's  *  eyes '  and  *  ears  ' — persons  whose 
business  it  was  to  keep  him  informed  on  all  matters  of  im- 
portance; his  scribes,  who  wrote  his  letters,  his  messengers 
who  went  his  errands,  his  ushers,  his  tasters,  who  tried  the 
various  dishes  set  before  him  lest  they  should  be  poisoned; 
his  cup-bearers,  who  handed  him  wine  and  tasted  of  it;  his 
chamberlains  who  assisted  him  to  bed ;  and  his  musicians,  who 
amused  him  with  song  and  harp.  Besides  these,  the  Court 
comprised  various  classes  of  guards,  doorkeepers,  huntsmen, 
grooms,  cooks,  and  other  domestic  servants  in  abundance,  to- 
gether with  a  vast  multitude  of  visitors,  guests,  princes,  cap- 
tives of  rank,  foreign  refugees,  ambassadors,  and  travellers. 
We  are  assured  that  the  king  fed  daily  within  the  precincts 
of  his  palace  as  many  as  15,000  persons,  and  that  the  cost 
of  each  day's  food  was  400  talents.  A  thousand  beasts  were 
slaughtered  for  each  repast,  besides  abundance  of  feathered 
game  and  poultry.  .  .  .  On  all  occasions  the  guests,  if 
they  liked,  carried  away  any  portion  of  the  food  set  before 
them,  conveying  it  to  their  homes  where  it  served  to  support 
their  families." ' 

Prescribed  etiquette  governed  everyone,  from  the  king  to 
his  meanest  subject.  The  august  king  must  dine  alone,  or 
at  best  have  with  him  the  queen  and  her  son.  He  could  be 
approached  only  with  certain  ceremony.  Ceremony  and  form 
were  by  no  means  confined  to  royalty  and  the  court.  Men  of 
dififerent  rank  met  each  other  with  established  form  and  salu- 
tation ;  certain  tasks  could  be  performed  only  by  persons  who 
>Rawlinson:  Persia. 


Copyright    by    Underwood   &   Underwood,   N.   Y. 

Damascus   SwoRn-MAKF.u. 


SOCIAIv   UF^   IN    PERSIA.  349 

could  perform  no  other  tasks.  This  led  to  a  large  body  of 
idlers  around  the  court,  ready  to  take  part  in  any  intrigue  or 
conspiracy.  They  gathered  around  the  homes  of  the  wealthy 
as  well  as  the  palace  of  the  king — water-bearers,  adorners, 
awakers,  and  each  rigidly  confined  himself  to  his  single  duty. 

In  early  times  the  Persians  indulged  in  a  single  meal 
each  day.  The  custom  continued  later,  but  now  the  feast  began 
with  the  morning  and  ceased  only  with  night.  The  amount  of 
wine  a  man  could  drink  became  his  boast.  In  place  of  the 
regular  habits,  frugal  fare  and  constant  exercise  of  early  times, 
were  substituted  the  prolonged  feast,  all  kinds  of  indulgencies, 
and  idleness. 

The  royal  harem  provided  apartments  for  the  king's  sev- 
eral wives  in  early  years.  Towards  the  close  of  the  empire, 
provision  had  to  be  made  for  some  three  hundred  and  sixty 
— if  we  may  trust  one  writer.  The  jealousies,  differences  and 
intrigues  which  arose  from  this  quarter  can  scarcely  be  im- 
agined. Each  wished  her  son  to  be  given  preference,  and 
this  ambition,  together  with  the  restlessness  accompanying 
enforced  seclusion,  stimulated  crime  and  fostered  conspiracies. 
The  favorite  of  the  king  might  toy  with  the  lives  of  his  sub- 
jects— even  with  the  lives  of  those  dear  to  him,  at  will.  No 
subject  in  the  land  had  reason  to  think  his  life  secure — least 
of  all,  he  who  was  today  powerful. 

For  diversions — other  than  Court  intrigues — the  king 
turned  to  the  hunt.  Dice  throwing  was  the  national  game, 
and  the  carving  of  wood  was  a  frequent  pastime.  Since  little 
was  known  of  books,  men  were  forced  to  find  some  means 
of  passing  hours  unoccupied  with  national  affairs  or  private 
concerns. 

Dress  had  been  simple  in  early  years.  As  time  went  on, 
it  became  more  complex;  even  matters  of  cosmetics  and  per- 
fumes were  later  deemed  of  weighty  importance. 

There  is  more  to  attract  us  in  the  Persian  state  during 
years  of  its  earlier  simplicity,  while  yet  the  soldier  found  his 
deepest  satisfaction  in  military  skill,  bodily  exercise  and  great 
endurance,  than  in  the  period  of  imperial  greatness,  when  the 
court  of  Persia  exceeded  in  splendor  anything  since  known. 


1—24 


350  the  w0ru5's  progrkss. 

Thb  Religion  op  Persia. 

Some  time  between  1(300-650  B.C.,  it  is  supposed  there  lived 
a  religious  reformer  by  the  name  of  Zarathushtra,  or  Zoroaster. 
Both  his  birth-place  and  birth-date  are  alike  unknown,  but  it  is 
supposed  that  he  lived  in  Bactria,  a  country  which  reached 
indefinitely  along  the  Caspian  Sea. 

Little  has  come  down  to  us  concerning  the  great  teacher 
himself.  He  early  felt  called  to  his  religious  mission.  Retiring 
from  the  world,  tradition  says  he  lived  for  some  years  upon  a 
remote  mountain,  and  here  a  divine  vision  came  to  him.  He 
communed  with  Ormuzd,  the  spirit  of  Good,  and  knew  that  his 
work  was  to  reclaim  man,  who  in  blindness  had  wandered 
away  from  truth  and  light,  and  to  bring  him  into  new  rela- 
tionship with  the  divine  spirit  which  was  ever  ready  to  win 
mankind  to  himself. 

At  the  age  of  thirty,  Zoroaster  was  prepared  to  preach  the 
new  law.  For  ten  years  he  wandered  about,  but  found  few 
to  listen  to  him.  His  family  and  friends  were  gradually  won 
to  the  faith  he  taught,  and  returning  to  the  Caspian  Sea  region, 
he  found  more  willing  hearers. 

The  conceptions  from  which  he  had  evolved  his  faith  were 
already  accepted  to  some  extent  by  those  among  whom  he 
came.  He  taught  that  there  were  two  spirits — Ormuzd  or 
Good,  embodying  all  truth,  life,  beauty,  order,  light;  and 
Ahriman,  or  Evil,  including  all  darkness,  death,  falsity  and 
disorder.  Life  was  a  struggle  between  these  two  contend- 
ing forces.  "  He  laid  before  his  people  their  own  thoughts 
in  all  the  pure  transparency  of  crystal  waters  cleared  from 
muddiness  and  unwholesome  admixtures  in  the  filter  of  his 
own  transcendent  and  searching  mind.  He  guided  their  grop- 
ing hands,  and  made  them  grasp  the  truth  for  which  they  were 
blindly  reaching.  Such  is  the  mission  of  every  true  prophet 
Had  the  people  not  been  ripe  for  his  teaching,  he  could  not 
have  secured  a  hearing,  or  made  himself  understood ;  the  peo- 
ple, on  the  other  hand,  could  never  have  worked  out  unaided 
the  ideal  to  which  they  were  vaguely  and  only  half-con- 
sciously  drawn.  They  listened  and  understood,  and  were 
won,  because,  to  use  the  expression  of  a  great  writer,  they 
had  in  themselves  the  seed  of  the  thoughts  which  the  prophet 
expounded  to  them."  * 

2  Ragozin :  Media  and  Persia. 


SOCIAL   hl^t  IN    PERSIA.  351 

Seven  times  divine  beings  brought  messages  to  Zoroaster. 
"  They  inculcate  the  doctrine  of  purity  of  body  as  well  as  of 
soul;  they  enjoin  the  care  of  useful  animals,  especially  the 
cow  and  the  dog;  they  emphasize  the  necessity  of  keeping  the 
earth,  the  fire  and  the  water  undefiled;  and  from  several  of 
their  ordinances  we  can  see  that  Zoroaster  was  a  civil  reformer 
as  well  as  a  spiritual  guide.  Foremost  among  the  command- 
ments is  the  abhorrence  of  falsehood,  the  universal  obligation 
to  speak  the  truth.  This  is  one  of  the  most  fundamental  of 
the  ethical  tenets  which  form  the  basis  of  the  entire  ancient 
Persian  religious  system." ' 

The  writings  which  contained  the  teachings  of  Zoroaster 
are  commonly  known  as  the  Zenda- Vesta.  The  name  is  mis- 
leading however,  and  should  read  Avesta-u-Zend,  which  trans- 
lated means :  "  Law  and  Commentary."  Among  students  the 
compilation  is  generally  called  the  Avesta.  Even  a  casual 
reading  of  the  Old  Testament  reveals  the  fact  that  the  various 
books  composing  it  were  written  by  different  writers,  writ- 
ing under  radically  different  circumstances,  and  at  widely  dis- 
tant periods.  The  same  is  true  of  the  Avesta.  One  of  its 
books  was  probably  written  either  by  Zoroaster  himself  or 
under  his  supervision.  This  is  the  Gathas,  or  book  of  songs, 
and  is  the  most  ancient  portion  of  the  entire  collection.  Ser- 
mons, prayers,  and  sayings  are  therein  contained,  some  of 
which  possess  poetic  beauty  and  rare  purity.  Other  books 
were  added  from  time  to  time,  until  the  Avesta  is  said  to  have 
been  made  up  of  twenty-one  books,  and  to  have  covered  1,200 
cowhides. 

When  Alexander  the  Great  conquered  Persia  in  332  b.  c, 
elated  by  his  victory,  and  having  drunk  heavily  of  wine,  he 
allowed  his  soldiers  to  burn  the  capital,  and  with  it  perished 
much  of  greatest  value.  Most  of  the  Persian  literature  was 
then  destroyed,  together  with  the  noblest  specimens  of  Persian 
architecture  and  decoration.  While  cities  were  few,  it  seems 
remarkable  that  the  only  copies  of  the  Avesta  wei»e  burned. 
For  several  centuries  following,  the  teachings  of  this  sacred 
book  lived  only  in  tlie  memories  of  priests.  Finally  in  325 
A.  D.,  a  council  was  called  to  take  measures  to  have  these 
ancient  doctrines  committed  to  writing.     Naturally  the  result 

•Jackson :  Persia,  the  Land  and  Its  History. 


352  THE  world's  progress. 

was  fragmentary  and  incomplete.  Only  those  portions  of  the 
original  text  which  had  been  in  daily  use  proved  to  be  well  re- 
membered. These  were  mainly  prayers  and  invocations.  The 
priests  in  all  probability,  seized  the  opportunity  to  insert  what- 
ever forms  of  worship  and  modified  beliefs  they  desired  to  em- 
phasize. Their  final  effort,  while  far  from  satisfactory,  embraces 
all  which  now  remains  of  the  religion  of  Zoroaster  and  his  fol- 
lowers. 

In  636  A.D.  the  Mohammedan  Arabs  made  a  religious  crusade 
and  undertook  to  blot  out  the  old  Persian  religion.  Most  of  the 
descendants  of  the  early  nation  yielded  to  the  fire  and  sword.  A 
small  portion  of  them  took  refuge  in  India,  where  they  were  al- 
lowed to  worship  as  they  chose.  Only  with  them  was  the  Avesta 
preserved.  These  Parsis  have  been  called  "the  ruins  of  a  peo- 
ple, as  their  sacred  books  are  the  ruins  of  a  religion."  Of  them 
Justi  writes:  "There  is  no  religious  body  in  the  world  whose 
practice  is  so  completely  in  harmony  with  their  moral  code." 

The  collection  of  Zend  Fragments,  commonly  known  as  the 
Zend-Avesta,  falls  into  two  parts:  The  Avesta,  properly  so- 
called,  which  contains- (1)  compilations  of  religious  laws  and 
mythical  tales;  (2)  collections  of  litanies  for  the  sacrifice;  (3) 
litanies  and  hymns  written  in  a  language  older  than  the  rest  of 
the  Avesta.  Secondly,  these  writings  contain  the  Small  Avesta, 
made  up  of  short  prayers,  recited  by  all  the  faithful.  It  was 
fitting  that  these  collections  of  fragments  be  preserved,  so  far 
as  possible,  in  their  original  dialect,  but  since  these  were  no 
longer  intelligible  even  to  the  educated,  the  Zend,  or  explanation 
— commentary — was  attached  in  the  prevailing  tongue.  Other- 
wise the  greater  portion  of  the  work  could  not  have  been  under- 
stood. Some  of  the  creation  stories  were  not  included  in  the 
Avesta,  but  were  gathered  together  with  other  myths  in  the 
Bundehesh, 

All  worshippers  are  classified  by  the  Avesta  as  followers  of 
Ormuzd — Good, — or  Ahriman — Evil.  One  could  either  stand 
for  good  or  against  it.  "Now  shall  I  proclaim  unto  you,  O  ye 
all  that  here  approach  me,  what  the  wise  should  lay  to  their 
hearts ;  the  songs  of  praise  and  the  sacrificial  rites  which  pious 
men  pay  the  Lord,  and  the  sacred  truths  and  ordinances,  that 
what  was  secret  until  now  may  appear  in  the  light  'Hear  with 
your  ears  that  which  is  best,  and  test  it  with  a  clear  understand- 
ing, before  each  man  decides  for  himself  between  the  two  teach- 
ings/ 


sociAiv  uF:e  IN  PERSIA.  353 

"  The  two  Spirits,  the  Twins,  skilfully  created,  in  the  begin- 
ning, Good  and  Evil,  in  thought,  in  speech,  in  deed.  And, 
between  these  two,  the  wise  have  made  the  right  choice;  not 
so  the  senseless.  If,  O  men,  you  lay  to  your  hearts  these 
ordinances  which  Ormuzd  instituted,  and  the  good  and  evil, 
and  the  long  torments  which  await  the  followers  of  falsehood, 
and  the  bliss  that  must  come  to  the  holders  of  the  true  faith, 
it  will  go  well  with  you." 

Followers  of  Zoroaster  abhorred  idolatry.  No  image  of 
their  God  corrupted  their  conceptions.  In  early  times  they 
built  no  temples,  having  only  altars  whereupon  sacrifices  were 
made.  Darius  often  mentions  Ahuramazda  (Hormuzd)  in  his 
inscriptions  as  the  highest  god  of  the  Persians,  and  it  is  highly 
probable  that  Cyrus  was  also  a  worshipper,  a  fact  which  made 
him  sympathetic  toward  the  religion  of  the  Jews  and  accounts 
for  his  willingness  that  they  rebuild  a  temple  in  Jerusalem  for 
the  worship  of  Yahweh. 

In  later  years,  forms  and  symbols  crept  into  the  service, 
for  abstract  teachings  did  not  hold  the  masses  of  the  people. 
Fire  was  conceived  to  be  a  symbol  of  the  God  of  Light,  and 
even  today  there  seems  to  be  a  certain  charm  in  the  concep- 
tion that  "  a  pure  and  undefiled  flame  is  certainly  the  most 
sublime  natural  representation  of  Him  who  is  in  Himself 
Eternal  Light."  There  must  have  been  a  sublimity  in  the 
sight  of  the  pure  flames,  rising  to  heaven  from  the  mountain- 
tops,  while  prayers  and  hymns  of  praise  were  poured  out  to 
the  one  great  Spirit,  by  whatever  name  known. 

As  days  of  degeneracy  overtook  Persia,  the  religion  was 
affected  by  the  general  lassitude  and  decay.  A  modernized 
form  of  the  early  faith  is  found  today  among  some  100,000  wor- 
shippers in  Arabia  and  India. 

A  Hymn. 
"We  worship  Ahura  Mazda  (Ormuzd),  the  pure,  the  master 

of  purity. 
"  We  praise  all  good  thoughts,  all  good  words,  all  good  deeds 

which  are  or  shall  be;  and  we  likewise  keep  clean,  and 

pure  all  that  is  good. 
"  O  Ormuzd,  thou  true,  happy  being !     We  strive  to  think,  to 

speak,  and  to  do  only  such  actions  as  may  be  best  fitted 

to  promote  the  two  lives  (the  life  of  the  body  and  of  the 
.soul). 


354  The  worIvD's  progress. 

"  We  beseech  the  spirit  of  earth  for  the  sake  of  these  our  best 
works  to  grant  us  beautiful  and  fertile  fields,  to  the  be- 
liever as  well  as  to  the  unbeliever,  to  him  who  has  riches 
as  well  as  to  him  who  has  no  possessions." 

From  the  Avesta.    Part  I. 

"  O  Maker  of  the  material  world,  thou  Holy  One !  Which  is 
the  first  place  where  the  Earth  feels  most  happy  ?  " 

Ahura  Mazda,  the  Good  Principle,  answered :  "  It  is  the  place 
whereon  one  of  the  faithful  steps  forward,  O  Zoroaster, 
with  the  holy  wood  in  his  hand,*  the  baresma  in  his  hand,* 
the  holy  meat  in  his  hand,'  the  holy  mortar  in  his  hand,* 
fulfilling  the  law  with  love,  and  beseeching  aloud 
Mithra." 

"  O  Maker  of  the  material  world,  thou  Holy  One !  Which  is 
the  second  place  where  the  Earth  feels  most  happy  ?  " 

Ahura  Mazda  answered :  "  It  is  the  place  whereon  one  of  the 
faithful  erects  a  house  with  a  priest  therein,  with  cattle, 
with  a  wife,  with  children,  and  good  herds  within ;  and 
wherein  afterwards  the  cattle  go  on  thriving,  holiness  is 
thriving,  fodder  is  thriving,  the  dog  is  thriving,  the  wife 
is  thriving,  the  child  is  thriving,  the  fire  is  thriving,  and 
every  blessing  of  life  is  thriving." 

"  O  Maker  of  the  material  world,  thou  Holy  One !  Which  is 
the  third  place  where  the  Earth  feels  most  happy  ?  " 

Ahura  Mazda  answered :  "  It  is  the  place  where  one  of  the 
faithful  cultivates  most  corn,  grass  and  fruit,  O  Zoroaster ! 
where  he  waters  ground  that  is  too  dry,  and  dries  ground 
that  is  too  wet." 

"  O  Maker  of  the  material  world,  thou  Holy  One !  Which  is 
the  fourth  place  where  the  Earth  feels  most  happy  ?  " 

Ahura  Mazda  answered :  "  It  is  the  place  where  there  is  most 
increase  of  flocks  and  herds." 

"  O  I\Iaker  of  the  material  world,  thou  Holy  One !  Which  is 
the  first  place  where  the  Earth  feels  sorest  grief?" 

Ahura  Mazda  answered :  "  It  is  the  neck  of  Arezura,'  whereon 
the  hosts  of  fiends  rush  forth  to  the  burrow  of  the  Drug.^  " 


» Food  for  the  altar  fire.  *  Sacred  twigs  held  by  the  priest  while  recit- 
ing prayers.  3  Meat  for  sacrifice.  «Used  for  crushing  the  Haoma,  an  in- 
toxicating plant,  whose  juice  is  used  by  the  faithful.  eQod  of  good  fields 
and  pastures.  «  Mount  at  the  gate  of  hell  whence  demons  rush  forth.  '  Hell. 


SOCIAIv  UFS  IN   PERSIA.  355 

**0  Maker  of  the  material  world,  thou  Holy  One!     Which  is 

the  second  place  where  the  Earth  feels  sorest  grief  ?  " 
Ahura  Mazda  answered :     "  It  is  the  place  where  most  corpses 

of  dogs  and  of  men  lie  buried," 
"  O  Maker  of  the  material  world,  thou  Holy  One !     Which  is 

the  fifth  place  where  the  Earth  feels  sorest  grief?" 
Ahura  Mazda  answered :    "  It  is  the  place  whereon  the  wife 

and  children  of  the  faithful,  O  Zoroaster,  are  driven  along 

the  way  of  captivity,  the  dry,  the  dusty  way,  and  lift  up 

a  voice  of  wailing," 
*'  O  Maker  of  the  material  world,  thou  Holy  One !    Who  is  the 

first  that  rejoices  the  Earth  with  greatest  joy?" 
Ahura  Mazda  answered :     "  It  is  he  who  digs  out  of  it  most 

corpses  of  dogs  and  men." 

Ancient  Hymn  from  the  Avesta. 

"I  am  the  Keeper;  I  am  the  Creator  and  the  Maintainer;  I  am 
the  Discerner;  I  am  the  most  beneficent  Spirit. 

My  name  is  the  bestower  of  health;  my  name  is  the  best  be- 
stower  of  health. 

My  name  is  the  Holy;  my  name  is  the  most  Holy. 

My  name  is  the  Glorious;  my  name  is  the  most  Glorious. 

My  name  is  the  far-seeing;  my  name  is  the  Farthest-seeing. 

My  name  is  Holiness;  my  name  is  the  Great  one;  my  name  is 
the  good  Sovereign ;  my  name  is  the  best  of  Sovereigns. 

My  name  is  the  Wise  One ;  my  name  is  the  Wisest  of  the  Wise ; 
my  name  is  He  who  does  good  for  a  long  time. 

These  are  my  names. 

And  he  who  in  this  material  world,  O  Zoroaster!  shall  recite 
and  pronounce  these  names  of  mine  either  by  day  or 
by  night;      . 

He  who  shall  pronounce  them  when  he  rises  up  or  when  he 
lays  him  down ;  when  he  lays  him  down  or  when  he  rises 
up;  when  he  binds  on  the  sacred  girdle,  or  when  he  un- 
binds the  sacred  girdle ;  when  he  goes  out  of  his  dwelling- 
place,  or  when  he  goes  out  of  his  town,  or  when  he  goes 
out  of  his  country  and  comes  into  another  country; 

That  man,  neither  in  that  day  nor  in  that  night  shall  be  wounded 
by  the  weapons  of  the  foe.  .  .  . ;  not  the  knife,  not  the 
cross-bow,  not  the  arrow,  not  the  sword,  not  the  club,  not 
the  sling-stone  shall  reach  him  and  wound  him. 


356 


TH^  world's  progress. 


But  these  names  shall  come  in  to  keep  him  from  behind  and  to 
keep  him  in  front  .  .  .  from  the  evil  ones,  bent  on 
mischief,  and  from  that  fiend  which  is  all  death — Angra 
Mainyu. 

It  will  be  as  if  there  were  a  thousand  men  watching  over  one 


man. 


—Trans.  Zend-Avesta:  Sacred  Books  of  the  East. 
Max  Muller,  ed.  V.  4,  23,  31. 


JSSl^'ei^ 


25^PeS^^^■T^ 


PART  OF  archer's  FRIEZE  IN  AN 
ANCIENT  PERSIAN  PALACE. 


SOCIAI.  UFB  IN   PERSIA.  357 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

Contributions   of    Babyi^onia,    Assyria   and    Persia    To 
Modern  Civiuzation. 

It  is  often  difficult  to  correctly  estimate  the  power  exerted 
by  a  statesman  upon  his  country.  The  movements  he  has 
espoused,  the  reforms  he  may  have  championed,  the  institu- 
tions he  helped  to  call  into  being,  all  stand  as  monuments  to  his 
memory.  But  the  subtle  effects  of  his  influence,  his  personal- 
ity and  character  upon  his  own  generation  and  others  still  to 
come,  are  seldom  understood  or  adequately  judged.  In  the 
case  of  a  nation  the  task  becomes  still  more  complicated,  and 
we  cannot  today  know  how  many  of  our  ideas,  inventions,  and 
attainments  have  been  shaped  by  nations  whose  light  went  out 
long  centuries  ago.  Nevertheless,  our  inability  to  estimate 
these  various  inheritances  aright  need  not  deter  us  from  an 
attempt  to  classify  such  bequeathments  as  are  universally 
acknowledged,  and  we  may  be  sure  that  the  present  world 
owes  much  to  the  earliest  nations  of  Western  Asia.  Their 
contributions,  however,  have  not  come  down  to  us  directly, 
but  have  been  passed  along,  like  legends,  from  one  people  to 
another,  until  their  present  form  scarcely  suggests  their 
origins. 

Let  us  consider  first  our  indebtedness  to  Babylonia.  In 
recent  years  discoveries  in  the  Euphrates  valley  and  the  mastery 
of  the  cuneiform  style  of  writing  have  given  us  masses  of 
material  wherefrom  to  reconstruct  the  past.  Not  only  has 
light  thus  been  thrown  upon  the  early  history  of  Babylonia 
and  Assyria,  but  aid  has  been  rendered  biblical  study.  The 
tribal  life  of  the  Hebrews,  and  the  civilization  of  other  con- 
temporary peoples  has  been  better  understood  because  of  these 
revelations.  However,  acquisitions  of  the  last  century  have 
had  no  part  in  molding  modern  civilization,  and  we  pass  on 
to  matters  of  earlier  significance. 

No  people  could  have  worked  as  diligently  in  the  field  of 
science  as  the  Babylonians  did  and  failed  to  leave  important 
results  of  their  investigations.  "  In  Geometry  the  Chaldeans 
made  about  the  same  progress  as  the  Egyptians;  in  Arithmetic 


358  THE  WORIvD's  progress. 

more.  Their  notation  combined  the  decimal  and  duodecimal 
systems.  Sixty  was  a  favorite  unit,  used  as  the  hundred  is 
by  us.  Scientific  Medicine  was  hindered  by  the  belief  in 
charms  and  amulets;  and  even  Astronomy  was  studied  chiefly 
as  a  means  of  fortune-telling  by  the  stars, — so  that  in  Europe 
through  the  Middle  Ages  an  astrologer  was  known  as  a 
Chaldean.  However,  the  level  plains  and  clear  skies,  as  in 
Egypt,  invited  to  an  early  study  of  the  constellations,  and 
some  important  progress  was  made.  As  we  get  from  the 
Egyptians  our  year  and  months,  so  from  the  Chaldeans  we  get 
the  week,  with  its  *  day  of  rest  for  the  heart,'  as  they  called 
the  seventh  day,  and  the  division  of  day  and  night  into  twelve 
hours  each,  with  the  subdivisions  into  minutes.  They  also 
invented  the  water  clock  and  the  sundial.  They  foretold 
eclipses,  made  star  maps,  and  marked  out  on  the  heavens  the 
apparent  yearly  path  of  the  sun.  The  zodiacal  *  signs '  of  our 
almanacs  commemorate  these  early  astronomers.  Every 
great  city  had  its  lofty  observatory  and  its  royal  astronomer; 
and  in  Babylon,  in  331  b.  c,  Alexander  the  Great  found  a 
continuous  series  of  observations  running  back  nineteen  hun- 
dred and  three  years. 

"  To  a  degree  peculiar  among  the  ancients,  the  men  of  the 
Euphrates  made  practical  use  of  their  science.  They  under- 
stood the  lever  and  pulley,  and  used  the  arch  in  vaulted  drains 
and  aqueducts.  They  invented  the  potter's  wheel,  and  an 
excellent  system  of  weights  and  measures.  Their  treatises  on 
agriculture  passed  on  their  knowledge  in  that  subject  to  the 
later  Greeks  and  Arabs.  They  had  surpassing  skill  in  cutting 
gems,  and  in  enameling  and  inlaying;  and  their  looms  pro- 
duced the  finest  of  muslins  and  of  fleecy  woolens,  to  which 
the  dyer  gave  the  most  brilliant  colors.  In  many  such  in- 
dustries little  advance  has  been  made  since,  so  far  as  results 
are  concerned."  * 

Certain  unfortunate  bequests  were  left  by  them.  Baby- 
lonian belief  in  demons  was  handed  down  through  the 
Hebrews,  and  in  the  Middle  Ages  took  the  form  of  the  devil, 
with  horns  and  a  cloven  foot.  Their  faith  in  magic  and  in- 
cantations also  descended  to  Mediaeval  times,  and  as  scientific 
interest  superseded  religious  fervor,  inspired  men  to  search 
for  the  "philosopher's  stone," 

» West:  Ancient  History. 


SOCIAIv  UFE  IN   PERSIA.  359 

The  intensely  practical  turn  of  mind  in  Mesopotamia 
revealed  itself  in  the  literature,  which  was  bare  of  imagery. 
Material  beauty — artistic  carpets,  tapestries,  and  rugs,  was 
developed,  but  for  beauty  of  conceptions,  we  must  turn  to  the 
Greeks. 

What  did  the  war-loving,  blood-thirsting  Assyrians  leave 
for  future  ages?  At  first  the  question  seems  not  to  be  easily 
answered.  One  calls  to  mind  their  ravaging  raids  and  un- 
paralleled carnage,  and  remembering  that  their  palaces  and 
stores  of  inscribed  tablets  were  recovered  only  within  the 
last  fifty  years,  their  contributions  are  not  so  apparent.  Yet, 
having  studied  the  government  enforced  by  Darius  upon  his 
empire,  we  are  compelled  to  admit  that  he  but  improved  upon 
the  system  evolved  by  the  Assyrian  kings,  unknown  before 
their  time  in  Asia.  Again,  the  very  conquests  themselves  were 
helpful,  in  spite  of  their  cruelty,  for  they  brought  the  best 
civilization  of  their  day  to  half-barbarous  tribes  who  other- 
wise might  have  passed  century  after  century  before  reach- 
ing the  degree  of  progress  so  rudely  thrust  upon  them.  These 
conquests  opened  up  routes  of  commerce,  and  trade  has  always 
exceeded  all  other  factors  as  a  civilizing  force. 

To  science  the  Assyrians  appear  to  have  made  no  contri- 
butions whatever. 

Coming  to  ancient  Persia,  we  find  a  wholly  different  cul- 
ture. The  people  of  this  country  lacked  the  practical  turn  of 
mind  so  characteristic  of  the  Babylonian,  and  his  mercenary 
point  of  view  was  quite  unknown  to  them.  Persian  literature, 
while  scanty,  embodied  poetical  conceptions,  and  several  of  the 
ancient  poems  possess  much  art.  "  The  Persians  had  fancy 
and  imagination,  a  relish  for  poetry  and  art,  and  they  were 
not  without  a  certain  power  of  political  combination.  Yet 
we  cannot  justly  ascribe  to  them  any  high  degree  of  intellec- 
tual excellence.  If  the  great  work  of  Firdausi  represents  to 
us,  as  it  probably  does,  the  true  spirit  of  their  ancient  poetry, 
their  efforts  were  but  of  moderate  merit.  A  tone  of  exag- 
geration, an  imagination  exuberant  and  unrestrained,  a  prefer- 
ence for  glitter  over  solid  excellence,  a  love  of  far-fetched 
conceits,  characterize  the  Shahnameh;  and,  though  we  may 
ascribe  something  of  this  to  the  individuality  of  the  poet, 
still  the  conviction  presses  upon  us  that  there  was  a  childish 


3^0  TH^  wori.d's  progress. 

and  grotesque  character  in  the  mass  of  old  Persian  poetry, 
which  marked  it  as  the  creation  of  moderate  rather  than  of 
high  intellectual  power,  and  prevents  us  from  regarding  it 
with  the  respect  with  which  we  view  the  labors  of  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  or  again,  of  the  Hebrews,  in  this  department. 
A  want  of  seriousness,  a  want  of  reality,  and,  again,  a  want 
of  depth,  characterize  the  poetry  of  Iran,  whose  bards  do  not 
touch  the  chords  which  rouse  what  is  noblest  and  highest  in 
our  nature.  They  give  us  sparkle,  prettiness,  quaint  and  in- 
genious fancies,  grotesque  marvels,  an  inflated  kind  of  human 
heroism;  but  they  have  none  of  the  higher  excellences  of  the 
poetic  art,  none  of  the  divine  fire  which  renders  the  true  poet, 
and  the  true  prophet,  one."  * 

The  Persian  religion  was  both  noble  and  sublime,  and  its 
teaching  concerning  the  two  opposing  forces  of  good  and  evil, 
affected  the  philosophy  of  the  Greeks,  and  indirectly,  the 
thought  of  the  later  Christian  world. 

By  carrying  the  plan  of  Assyrian  conquest  further,  the 
Persians  opened  districts  remote  from  social  centers  and  helped 
the  course  of  civilization.  Their  systematic  government  im- 
proved upon  the  one  developed  by  Assyria  in  this  particular: 
each  governor  was  made  supreme  in  his  province  under  As- 
syrian administration,  none  other  being  accountable  to  the  king 
for  conditions  in  his  territory.  An  opportunity  thus  offered 
for  the  governor  to  seize  any  favorable  moment  to  shake  off 
allegiance  to  the  state  and  attempt  to  establish  his  own  suprem- 
acy. Darius,  on  the  other  hand,  posted  troops  in  each  satrapy, 
and  both  the  commander  of  these  troops  and  the  governor 
were  required  to  submit  reports,  and  to  act  jointly  in  certain 
matters.     In  this  way,  one  served  as  a  check  upon  the  other. 

Fine  roads  were  built  to  allow  rapid  communication  be- 
tween the  capital  and  distant  provinces;  these  naturally  facili- 
tated commerce,  and  made  travel  safe — as  one  has  graphically 
expressed  it,  "  helped  set  the  world  a-mixing." 

A  new  day  was  dawning  for  humanity,  and  an  age  com- 
ing when  one  might  look  back  to  the  infancy  of  the  world, 
likening  its  progress  to  that  of  a  man  who  has  gained  some 
perceptions,  some  ideas  and  experiences  in  childhood  days 
which  unconsciously  but  surely,  influence  his  later  life,  illumi- 
nated by  wider  experiences  and  deeper  truths. 

*  RawUnson :  Persia. 


ASSYRIAN    LITERATURE.  361 


THE  BOOK-STAMP  OF  SARDANAPALUS. 

ASSURBANIPAL,  OF,  as  the  Greeks  called  him,  Sardanapalus,  is 
supposed  to  have  stored  in  his  palace  at  Nineveh  not  less  than  30,000 
tablets.  Upon  every  work  in  his  library  his  ownership  was  stamped 
as  follows: 

The;  Palace  op  Assurbanipal,  King  op  Regions, 
King  of  Multitudes,  King  oe  Assyria,  to  whom 
THE   God    Nebo   and   the   Goddess   Tasmeti   have 

GRANTED  attentive  EARS  AND  OPEN  EYES  TO  DIS- 
COVER THE  Writings  of  the  Scribes  op  my  King- 
dom, WHOM  the  Kings  my  Predecessors  have 
EMPLOYED.  In  my  respect  for  Nebo,  the  God  op 
Intelligence,    I    have   collected   these    tablets: 

I  HAVE  HAD  THEM  COPIED:  I  HAVE  MARKED  THEM 
WITH    MY    NAME;     AND    I    HAVE    DEPOSITED    THEM    IN 

MY  Palace. 


THE  CHALDEAN  ACCOUNT  OF  THE  DELUGE. 

This  account  was  first  translated  by  George  Smith  from  the  eleventh 
of  a  series  of  tablets  describing  the  adventures  of  the  mythical  hero, 
IzDUBAR  (or  Gilgamish),  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  Nimrod.  The 
whole  series  of  tablets  relates  his  early  life  and  exploits  in  hunting,  his 
friendship  with  the  faun  labani,  his  victory  over  the  tyrant  Humbaba, 
the  love  of  the  Goddess  Ishtar,  his  illness,  the  death  of  labani,  his  wan- 
derings to  find  his  ancestor,  Hasisadra  (or  Pir-napishtim),  who  for  his 
piety  had  been  translated  to  the  fellowship  of  the  gods.  This  ancestor 
relates  to  Gilgamish  the  story  of  a  great  flood  resembling  in  general  out- 
line the  narrative  in  Genesis,  but  stamped  with  the  impress  of  the  Chal- 
dean religion.     Shamas  was  the  Sun-god. 

The  early  literature  of  many  nations  contains  stories  of  a  universal 
flood,  from  which  a  favored  family  or  individual  alone  escapes.  None 
is  more  striking  than  the  one  deciphered  from  the  clay  tablets  of  Chaldea, 
or  more  nearly  parallel  to  that  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures. 

TABLET  XL  OF  THE  GILGAMISH  EPIC 

The  following  translation  is  from  Professor  Craig: 
The  Babyw)nian  Story  oe  the  DEiyUGE. 

Pir-napishtim  saith  to  him,  even  to  Gilgamish ; 

I  will  relate  to  thee,  Gilgamish,  a  secret  story. 

And  the  decision  of  the  gods  I  will  tell  thee. 


362  THE   WORIvD'S   progress. 

The  city  Shurippak,  which  thou  knowest, 

Is  situated  on  the  shore  of  the  Euphrates. 

This  city  was  old  when  the  gods  within  it 

Were  moved  to  produce  a  flood,  even  the  great  gods. 

They  were  Anu,  their  father, 

The  warrior  Bel,  their  counsellor, 

Their  throne-bearer,  Ninib, 

Their  leader,  Ennugi, 

Ninigiazag  (the  god  Ea)  had  spoken  with  them 

And  their  decree  he  repeated  to  the  reed-house  (saying)  : 

"Reed-house  I    reed-house !    house-wall !    house-wall  !^ 

Reed-house,  hear  1  and  house-wall,  consider ! 

0  man  of  Shurippak,  son  of  Ubar-Tutul 
Construct  a  house,  build  a  ship. 
Abandon  possessions,  seek  life. 
Property  despise,  and  life  save, 

Put  seed  of  life  of  every  kind  into  the  ship. 
The  ship  which  thou  shalt  build,  even  thou. 
Let  be  measured  her  dimensions: 
Let  her  breadth  and  length  be  equal, 
Upon  the  ocean  launch  her." 

1  understood,  and  said  to  Ea,  my  lord : 
"Behold,  my  lord,  what  thou  hast  commanded 
I  hold  in  reverence,  I  shall  do. 

(But  what)  shall  I  answer  the  city,  the  people,  and  the  elders?" 

Ea  opened  his  mouth  and  speaketh, 

Saith  unto  his  servant,  unto  me: 

"T)  man  I    Thus  shalt  thou  say  unto  them: 

Bel  has  rejected  me  and  cursed  me. 

I  shall  dwell  no  more  in  your  city. 

And  upon  Bel's  ground  I  shall  not  set  my  face. 

But  to  the  ocean  shall  I  descend ;  with  Ea,  my  lord,  I  shall  dwell. 

Upon  you  he  shall  cause  to  pour  out  abundance. 

Game  of  birds  and  game  of  fishes, 

(Animals  of  all  kinds)  ;  field-fruits  in  plenty, 

When  in  the  evening  the  ruler  of  the  darkness  (  ?) 

Shall  cause  to  rain  upon  you  a  heavy  rain." 

iThe  house  for  its  inhabitants.     Compare  Isaiah  1.  2:     Hear,  O 
heavens,  and  give  ear,  O  earth. 


TH^  BABYI^ONIAN  STORY  OP  Th:^  D^I^UG^.  363 

As  soon  as  dawn  began  to  appear, 

(Five  or  six  lines  wanting) 

The  weak  (?) . 

The  strong  brought  to  (the  building-place)  what  was  necessary. 

On  the  fifth  day  I  laid  down  her  form. 

Ina  Kar-Hv-Sa  one  hundred  and  twenty  cubits  high  were  her 
walls, 

One  hundred  and  twenty  cubits  likewise  was  the  extent  of  her 
roof. 

Its  outer  frame  I  constructed,  enclosed  it.^ 

I     .      «     .      .      .     her  six  times. 

I  divided       .....     seven  times. 

Its  interior  I  divided  nine  times. 

Water  plugs  I  beat  into  it  on  its  inside. 

I  provided  a  rudder  (  ?)  and  what  was  needed  I  added. 

Six  sars  of  bitumen  I  spread  on  the  outside  (  ?). 

Three  sars  of  pitch  (I  spread)  on  the  inside. 

Three  sars  of  basket-bearers  brought  oil. 

I  left  one  sar  of  oil  which  the  offering  consumed. 

Two  sars  of  oil  the  shipman  stowed  away. 

For  the  people  I  slaughtered  oxen, 

I  killed     .      .      .     every  day. 

New  w(ine,  sesame)  wine,  oil  and  wine, 

Like  the  waters  of  the  river  ( I  gave  the  people  to  drink) 

And  (held)  a  religious  feast  like  unto  the  New- Year's  Feast. 

I  opened  (?)     ...     of  anointing  oil,  my  hand  applied  (it). 

(In  the  month)  of  Shamash,  the  great  god,  the  ship  was  com- 
pleted. 

Because were  difficult 

(Untranslatable)  they  brought  above  and  below. 

two-thirds  of  it. 

All  that  I  had  I  put  on  board  of  it. 
All  that  I  had  of  silver  I  put  on  board  of  it. 
All  that  I  had  of  gold  I  put  on  board  of  it. 
All  that  I  had  of  seed  of  life  of  every  kind  I  put  on  board  of  it. 
I  caused  to  go  up  into  the  ship  all  my  family  and  relatives. 
Cattle  of  the  field,  beasts  of  the  field,  all  the  craftsmen,  I  caused 
to  go  up. 

'The  meaning  h/?re  and  in  the  next  four  limes  is  not'clear. 


364  THE   W0RI4)'S   PROGRESS.  ^ 

A  definite  time  the  god  Shamash  had  appointed: 

The  ruler  of  the  darkness  (  ?)  at  even-tide  shall  cause  to  rain  a 

heavy  rain, 
Enter  thou  (then)  within  the  ship  and  close  thy  door." 
That  appointed  time  came. 

The  ruler  of  the  darkness  (  ?)  at  eventide  rained  a  heavy  rain. 
The  appearance  of  that  day  I  (fore) saw. 
To  behold  the  day  I  had  fear. 
I  entered  into  the  ship  and  closed  my  door. 
For  the  control  of  the  ship  to  Puzur-Bel 
The  great-house  I  gave  over  together  with  its  store. 
With  the  first  appearing  of  dawn 

There  rises  from  the  foundation  of  the  heavens  a  black  cloud, 
Ramman  within  it  thunders. 
Nebo  and  Marduk  march  in  front ; 
Over  mountain  and  plain  march  the  throne-bearers. 
The  tar-kul-li  the  great  Dibbarra  tore  away. 
Ninib  advances,  ruin  he  pours  out. 
The  Anunnaki  bear  aloft  torches. 
With  their  brightness  they  set  the  land  aflame. 
The  dread  of  Ramman  reaches  to  heaven. 
Everything  bright  he  turneth  to  darkness. 

.     the  land  like     ...     he  covered  (?) 
One  day  the  hurricane  (raged), 

Violently  it  blew,  the  waters  (covered?)  the  mountains. 
Like  the  (onslaught  of)  battld  over  mankind  (they)  came. 
Brother  sees  not  (his)  brother. 
Men  are  not  discerned  in  heaven  (i.  e.,  by  the  gods). 
The  gods  were  terrified  by  the  flood,  and 
Withdrew  and  ascended  to  the  heaven  of  Anu. 
The  gods  dog-like  cower,  crouch  on  the  wall  (of  heaven). 
Ishtar  screams  like  a  woman  in  travail. 
She  cries  aloud  the  lady  of  the  gods,  the  sweet- voiced : 
"Verily  the  former  race  is  turned  to  clay. 
Just  as  I  in  the  assembly  of  the  gods  proclaimed  evil. 
As  I  proclaimed  in  the  assembly  of  the  gods  evil 
For  the  destruction  of  my  people  war  I  foretold. 
So,  verily,  will  I  bring  forth  my  people 
Tho'  like  the  fry  of  fishes  they  fill  the  sea." 
The  gods,  the  highest  of  the  Anunnaki  weep  with  her. 


THE  BABYU)NIAN  STORY  OF  THE  DElyUGE.  3^5 

The  gods  are  downcast,  sit,  and  weep, 

Covered  were  their  lips     . 

Six  days  and  nights 

The  wind  prevailed,  flood  and  storm  overwhelmed  the  land. 

When  the  seventh  day  came  the  storm  abated,  the  flood  was  over- 
come, 

Which  had  battled  like  a  warring  host; 

The  sea  calmed,  the  hurricane  ceased,  the  flood  was  restrained, 

I  beheld  the  sea,  uttering  a  lamentation, 

Seeing  that  all  mankind  was  turned  to  clay. 

When  the  light  had  fully  dawned  I  prayed. 

I  opened  an  airhole  and  light  fell  upon  my  cheeks. 

I  bowed  myself,  I  sat  down,  I  wept. 

Over  my  cheeks  ran  my  tears. 

I  looked  upon  the  far-spread  waters  of  the  sea. 

After  twelve  double-hours  a  peak  arose, 

Towards  the  mountain  of  Nitsir  the  ship  took  its  course. 

The  mountain  of  Nitsir  held  the  ship  and  let  it  not  rise. 

One  day,  a  second  day,  the  mountain  of  Nitsir,  ditto 

A  third  day,  a  fourth  day  the      "        "       " 

A  fifth  day,  a  sixth  day        "       "        «       " 

When  the  seventh  day  arrived 

I  brought  forth  a  dove  and  let  it  go. 

The  dove  went  forth,  flew  to  and  fro,  but 

A  resting-place  there  was  not,  so  it  returned. 

Then  I  brought  forth  a  swallow  and  let  it  go, 

The  swallow  went  forth,  flew  to  and  fro,  but 

A  resting-place  there  was  not  so  it  returned. 

(Then)  I  brought  forth  a  raven  and  let  it  go. 

The  raven  went  forth,  the  disappearance  of  the  waters  he  saw, 

He  eats,  caws,  flies  to  and  fro,  and  returns  not. 

(Then)  I  brought  forth  to  the  four  winds,  I  offered  a  sacrifice. 

I  made  an  incense-offering  on  the  top-most  peak  of  the  mountain. 

Seven  and  seven  adagur-wessels  I  placed. 

Into  them  I  cast  reeds,  cedar-wood,  and 

The  gods  inhaled  the  good  odour. 

The  gods  like  flies  swarmed  about  the  offerer. 

As  soon  as  the  mistress  of  the  gods  arrived 

She  lifted  up  the  gfreat  jewels  ( ?)  that  the  god  Anu  had  devised 
and  made  for  her  (and  said) 

1—26 


366  THE  world's  progress. 

"These  gods,  by  my  lapis  lazuli  necklace  I  shall  not  forget 

These  days,  verily  I  shall  reflect  upon  and  never  forget. 

The  gods,  let  them  go  to  the  incense-offering. 

(But)  let  not  Bel  go  to  the  incense-offering, 

Seeing  that  he  did  not  reflect  but  caused  the  flood. 

And  my  people  he  counted  for  destruction. 

As  soon  as  Bel  arrived 

He  saw  the  ship  and  Bel  was  sore  angry, 

He  waxed  wroth  against  the  gods,  the  Ig^g^. 

"Some  soul  has  escaped"  (he  said), 

"Let  no  man  survive  the  destruction." 

Ninib  openeth  his  mouth  and  speaketh. 

He  speaks  to  the  warrior  Bel : 

"Who  but  Ea  doeth  (this)  thing? 

But  Ea  is  wise  in  every  undertaking." 

Ea  openeth  his  mouth  and  speaketh, 

Saith  to  the  warrior  Bel : 

"Thou  sage  of  the  gods,  warrior ! 

Verily,  verily,  thou  didst  not  reflect,  and  didst  make  a  flood : 

Upon  the  sinner  lay  his  sins. 

Upon  the  impious  his  impiety.^ 

Spare,  let  him  not  be  cut  off,  have  mercy,  let  him  (not  be  utterly 

destroyed). 
Instead  of  bringing  on  a  flood, 
Let  the  lion  come  and  reduce  mankind. 
Instead  of  bringing  on  a  flood. 
Let  the  hyaena  come  and  reduce  mankind. 
Instead  of  bringing  on  a  flood, 
Let  famine  be  sent  and  the  land  (reduced). 
Instead  of  bringing  on  a  flood, 
Let  the  Pest-god  come  and  destroy  the  land. 
As  for  me,  I  have  not  revealed  the  secret  of  the  gods. 
I  caused  Atrahasis  to  see  a  vision  and  thus  he  learned  the  secret 

of  the  gods." 
Thereupon  his  counsel  was  taken 
And  Bel  ascended  within  the  ship. 
Seized  me  by  the  hands  and  brought  me  up   (to  a  point  still 

higher). 

iThis  is  evidence  that  the  deluge,  as  in  the  Old  Testament,  was  a 
punishmsnt  for  sin,  which  some  writers  (not  Assyriologists)  have  de- 
nied in  the  interest  of  an  outgrown  view  of  the  Bible. 


ISHTAR*S  DESCENT  TO  HADES.  367 

He  brought  up  and  made  to  bow  beside  me  my  wife, 
Turned  us  face  to  face,  stood  between  us  and  blessed  us : 
*'In  former  times  Pir-napishtim  was  human 
But  henceforth  Pir-napishtim  and  his  wife  shall  be  like  us  gods 
And  Pir-napishtim  shall  dwell  afar  off  at  the  mouth  of  the  rivers." 
Then  they  took  me  and  afar  off  at  the  mouth  of  the  rivers  they 
caused  me  to  dwell. 

THE   DESCENT   OF  ISHTAR  TO   HADES. 

IsHTAR  was  the  Babylonian  Venus  or  goddess  of  love.  The  story  of 
her  descent  to  Hades  and  return  to  the  world  of  the  living  is  found  on  a 
tablet  now  in  the  British  Museum,  and  is  perhaps  the  most  poetical  legend 
of  the  recovered  Assyrian  literature.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  story 
is  the  text  of  a  religious  drama,  resembling  the  miracle-plays  of  me- 
diaeval Europe.  The  legend  shows  no  reason  for  Ishtar's  desire  to  enter 
Hades,  but  it  is  easy  to  suppose  that  she  went  thither  to  rescue  some 
beloved  person.  This  supplies  a  connection  with  the  familiar  story  of 
Venus  and  Adonis  (or  Tammuz),  which  the  Greek  writers  declare  to  be 
of  Syrian  origin.  The  drama,  if  such  it  were,  was  probably  part  of  the 
annual  celebration  of  the  return  of  Spring.  Ninkigal,  the  Queen  of 
Hades,  corresponds  to  the  Greek  Persephone,  and  Latin  Proserpina,  the 
wife  of  Pluto.  In  like  manner,  Ea,  the  king  of  the  gods,  corresponds  to 
Zeus  or  Jupiter,  and  the  divine  messenger  to  Hermes  or  Mercury. 

A  Babylonian  Epic — Ishtar's  Descent  to  Hades. 

(Translation  by  Professor  Craig.) 

On  the  land  without  regress,  the  land  (that  thou  knowest), 

Ishtar,  Sin's  daughter,  did  fix  her  attention, 

The  daughter  of  Sin  did  fix  her  attention, 

On  the  dwelling  of  darkness,  the  abode  of  Irkalla, 

On  the  dwelling  whose  inhabitant  comes  no  more  out, 

On  the  road  whose  advancing  knows  no  returning, 

On  the  house  whose  inhabitants  removed  from  the  light, 

Where  they're  nourished  with  dust  and  clay  is  their  food, 

Where  they  see  not  the  light,  but  in  darkness  are  dwelling, 

And  are  clad  like  the  birds  with  a  covering  of  wings ; 

On  door  and  on  bars  lies  the  dust  thickly  gathered. 

Arrived  at  the  door  of  the  land  without  regress, 
To  the  porter  in  keeping,  this  order  she  giveth : 
Thou  watcher  of  waters,  throw  open  thy  portal  I 


368  THE  world's  progress. 

Throw  open  thy  portal,  within  will  I  enter ! 

If  the  door  be  not  opened  that  I  may  pass  through  it. 

The  door  will  I  shatter,  its  bolt  break  in  pieces. 

Its  sills  will  I  burst,  its  doors  tear  asunder. 

The  dead  will  I  raise  up,  devourers  and  living. 

Even  more  than  the  living  the  dead  will  I  raise  up. 

The  porter  then  opened  his  mouth  and  made  answer. 
To  the  great  goddess  Ishtar,  made  answer  the  porter; 
"Withhold!    O  my  lady,  do  not  break  it  away, 
1  go  to  Allatu,  thy  name  to  announce." 
The  porter  announced  to  the  queen,  to  Allatu : 
"Thy  sister,  Ishtar,  is  come  over  these  waters 


When  Allatu  these  tidings  received  (from  the  porter), 
Like  a  tamarisk  cut  she  (bowed  herself  down)  (  ?). 
Like  a  reed  that  is  broken  she  (bent  to  the  ground)  (  ?). 
"What  bringeth  her  heart  to  me,  pray?    What  trouble? 
With  this  one  forsooth  (shall  I  share  my  dwelling?) 
As  food  eat  the  clay  and  as  wine  drink  the  water. 
Weep  over  men  who  their  wives  have  abandoned. 
O'er  maidens  who  mourn  the  embrace  of  their  lovera. 
Weep  o'er  the  infants  destroyed  e'er  their  day? 
Go  I  porter,  throw  open  thy  door— open  to  her  I 
And  treat  her  according  to  olden-time  law." 
The  porter  departed,  threw  open  his  door; 
"O  enter,  my  lady,  a  welcome  in  Hades! 
Palace  of  the  land,  that  knows  no  returning, 
O  let  it  rejoice  in  thy  presence." 

The  first  door  he  caused  her  to  enter,  and  halting. 

Removed  the  great  crown  from  her  head. 

**Why  tak'st  thou  the  great  crown  from  my  head,  O  porter?** 

"O  enter,  my  lady,  *tis  the  law  of  Allatu." 

The  next  door  he  caused  her  to  enter,  and  halting, 

The  rings  were  removed  from  her  ears. 

"Why  tak'st  thou  the  rings  frcwn  my  ears,  O  porter?" 

*'0  enter,  my  lady,  'tis  the  law  of  Allatu." 

The  third  door  he  caused  her  to  enter,  and  halting. 


ishtar's  descent  to  hades.  369 

The  necklace  removed  from  her  neck. 

"Why  tak'st  thou  from  my  neck  the  necklace,  O  porter?" 

"O  enter,  my  lady,  'tis  the  law  of  AUatu." 

The  fourth  door  he  caused  her  to  enter,  and  halting, 

Her  jewels  removed  from  her  breast. 

"Why  tak'st  thou  from  my  breast  the  jewels,  O  porter?'* 

"O  enter,  my  lady,  'tis  the  law  of  Allatu." 

The  fifth  door  he  caused  her  to  enter,  and  halting. 

The  bearing-stone  girdle  he  took  off  from  her  waist. 

"Why  tak'st  thou  from  my  waist  my  gemmed-girdle,  O  porter?" 

"O  enter,  my  lady,  'tis  the  law  of  Allatu." 

The  sixth  door  he  caused  her  to  enter,  and  halting. 

Took  the  rings  from  her  hands  and  her  feet. 

"Why  from  hands  and  from  feet  take  the  rings,  pray,  O  porter  ?" 

"O  enter,  my  lady,  'tis  the  law  of  Allatu." 

The  seventh  door  he  caused  her  to  enter,  and  halting. 

From  her  body  her  cincture  removed. 

"Why  take  from  my  body  my  cincture,  O  porter?" 

"O  enter,  my  lady,  'tis  the  law  of  Allatu." 

To  the  land  without  regress  when  Ishtar  descended, 

Allatu  beheld  her  and  raged  in  her  presence; 

Imprudently,  boldly,  did  Ishtar  attack  her. 

Then  opened  Allatu  her  mouth  and  commanded. 

To  Namtar,  her  servant,  the  order  was  given: 

"Go  Namtar,  confine  her 

With  disease  of  the  eye,  and  the  hip,  and  the  foot, 

With  disease  of  the  heart,  and  the  scalp,  go  smite  Ishtar, 

Afflict  her  whole  person  I" 

After  Ishtar,  the  goddess,  had  (been  thus  afflicted)  (?) 
The  bull  no  more  covered  the  cow,  nor  ass  gendered; 
No  more  in  the  street  lay  the  man  with  the  maiden ; 
The  man  went  asleep  in  his  place. 
In  her  place  slept  the  maiden. 

The  god's-servant,  Pap-su-kal,  face  down  and  sad-visaged. 

Was  clothed  in  the  garb  of  deep  mourning. 

Shamash  went,  sorely  wept  before  Sin,  his  father. 

His  tears  ran  down  before  the  king,  Ea, 

Saying :  "Ishtar's  gone  down  to  the  land,  and  returns  not 


37°  The  wori^d's  progress. 

Since  Ishtar's  descent  to  the  land  without  regress 
The  bull  no  more  covers  the  cow,  nor  ass  genders; 
No  more  in  the  street  lies  the  man  with  the  maiden. 
The  man  falls  asleep  in  his  place, 
In  her  place  sleeps  the  maiden." 

Then  Ea  created  a  male  in  his  wisdom, 
The  god's-servant,  Uddushu-namir,  created. 
"Go!  Uddushu-namir,  to  land  without  regress, 
Seven  doors  of  the  land  without  regress  be  opened! 
Allatu  behold  thee,  rejoice  in  thy  presence ! 
Her  heart  when  at  ease,  and  her  spirit  when  joyful; 
In  name  of  the  great  gods  do  thou  adjure  her: 
'Thy  head  raise,  to  Hal-skin  direct  thy  attention, 

0  lady,  I  pray  thee,  Halziqu-skin  give  me; 

1  desire  to  drink  of  the  waters  within  it.' " 

This  hearing,  Allatu  her  sides  smote,  her  nails  bit. 
"Of  me  thou  hast  asked  an  impossible  favor. 
Hence!    Uddushu-namir,  with  curse  will  I  curse  thee; 
Thy  food  it  shall  be  the  foul  mud  of  the  city, 
From  drains  of  the  city  shalt  thou  drink  the  water, 
The  shade  of  the  wall  shall  be  thy  dwelling. 
Thy  place  of  abiding  a  stone-block  shall  build  it. 
Confinement,  privation,  thy  strength  let  them  shatter.'* 

Allatu  then  opened  her  mouth  and  commanded. 

To  Namtar,  her  servant,  the  order  was  given : 

"Go!  Namtar,  beat  on  the  palace  eternal! 

Go !  rap  on  the  stone  slabs,  those  made  out  of  pa-stone. 

Go !  lead  forth  the  spirits,  on  golden  thrones  set  them. 

With  water-of-life  sprinkle  Ishtar,  the  goddess. 

Lead  her  forth  from  my  presence." 

Then  went  Namtar,  beat  on  the  palace  eternal. 

And  shook  the  stone  slabs  those  made  out  of  ^a-stone ; 

He  led  forth  the  spirits,  on  golden  thrones  set  them, 

With  water-of-life  sprinkled  Ishtar  the  goddess. 

Led  her  forth  from  her  presence. 

Through  first  door  he  led  her,  gave  to  her  her  cincture. 


ishtar's  decent  to  hades.  371 

Through  second  door  he  led  her,  her  rings  he  gave  to  her. 
Through  third  door  he  led  her,  gave  back  her  gemmed-girdle. 
Through  fourth  door  he  led  her,  gave  back  her  breast- jewels. 
Through  fifth  door  he  led  her,  gave  to  her  her  necklace. 
Through  sixth  door  he  led  her,  gave  to  her  her  ear-rings. 
Through  seventh  door  he  led  her,  the  great  crown  gave  to  her. 

Here  ends  the  descent  of  Ishtar.    The  priest  continues : 

"If  free  she'll  not  free  her,  return  with  her  to  her 

And  for  Tammuz,  her  bridegroom  in  years  that  were  youthful, 

Pour  water  e'en  purest,  with  sweet  balm  (anoint  him) 

And  clothe  him  with  garments,  a  flute  (give  unto  him). 

Companions  of  Ishtar,  let  them  wail  with  loud  (wailing), 

The  goddess,  Belili,  her  treasure  completed. 

High  heaped  are  the  eye-stones,  her  knees  now  supporteth. 

Her  brother's  complaint  she  then  understanding, 

The  great  goddess  Belili  her  treasures  outpouring, 

She  fills  with  the  eye-stones  the  floor  round  about  her  (saying) 

*My  only  one,  brother  mine,  do  me  no  evil.' 

When  Tammuz  with  flute  of  fine  lapiz  discourseth, 

Then  play  with  him  joyfully  flute  of  fine  beryl. 

And  play  with  him  joyfully  men  mourners  and  women. 

The  dead  may  arise  the  sweet  incense  inhaling." 

Note. — See   Jastoon,   "Religion   of   Babylonia  anc   Assyria,"   page 
563  ff.,  for  a  full  discussion  of  this  epic. 


GYGES  AND  ASSURBANIPAL. 


te»j)^t^R««««««M««ii?M«ia«e)««<i5»a«rt^py??75gg 


'    V 


Gyges,  king  of  Lydia,  reigned  B.C.  716-678.  The  Greek  historian 
Herodotus  has  given  an  interesting  account  of  him,  but  still  more 
interesting  is  the  following  extract  showing  how  he  v/as  regarded  by 
the  great  king  of  Assyria,  Assurbanipal  (Sardanapalus). 

Gyges  was  the  king  of  Lydia,  a  countr)'-  beyond  the  seas, 
a  distant  land,  of  whicli  the  kings,  my  fathers,  had  never  even 
heard  the  name.  Assur,  my  divine  generator,  revealed  my 
name  to  him  in  a  dream,  saying  :  *'  Assurbanipal,  the  king  of 
Assyria  ;  place  thyself  at  his  feet,  and  thou  shalt  conquer  thy 
enemies  in  his  name."  The  same  day  that  he  dreamed  this 
dream,  Gyges  sent  horsemen  to  salute  me,  and  related  to  me 
the  dream  which  he  had  had,  by  the  mouth  of  his  messengers. 
When  the  latter  reached  the  frontiers  of  my  empire  and 
encountered  the  people  of  my  empire,  they  said  to  him, 
"Who  then  art  thou,  stranger,  whose  land  has  never  yet  been 
visited  by  one  of  our  couriers  ?  " 

They  sent  him  to  Nineveh,  the  seat  of  my  royalty,  and 
brought  him  before  me.  The  languages  of  the  East  and  of 
the  West,  which  Assur  had  given  into  my  hand,  none  of  those 
who  spoke  them  could  understand  his  language,  and  none  of 
those  who  surrounded  me  had  ever  heard  speech  like  unto  it. 
In  the  space  of  my  empire  at  last  I  found  one  who  understood 
it,  and  he  told  me  the  dream.  The  same  day  that  he  placed 
himself  at  the  feet  of  me,  the  king  Assurbanipal,  he  defeated 
the  Cimmerians,  who  oppressed  the  people  of  his  land,  whc 
had  not  feared  the  kings,  my  fathers,  and  had  not  placed 

371a 


THE  world's  progress. 


37ih 


themselves  at  ray  feet.  By  the  grace  of  Assur  and  Ishtar,  the 
gods  my  masters,  they  took  amidst  the  chiefs  of  the  Cimmeri- 
ans, whom  he  had  defeated,  two  chiefs  whom  he  chained 
heavily  with  manacles  and  fetters  of  iron,  and  he  sent  them 
to  me  with  a  rich  present. 

Nevertheless  the  horsemen  that  he  at  first  sent  regularly 
to  pay  homage  to  me,  he  soon  ceased  to  send.  He  would  not 
obey  the  commands  of  Assur,  my  divine  generator,  but  fool- 
ishly trusted  in  his  own  strength,  and  in  the  wishes  of  his 
heart.  He  sent  his  troops  to  the  assistance  of  Psammetichus, 
king  of  Egypt,  who  had  contemptuously  thrown  off  my  yoke. 
I  heard  this,  and  prayed  to  Assur  and  Ishtar:  "May  his 
body  be  thrown  down  before  his  enemies,  and  may  his  bones 
be  dispersed."  The  Cimmerians,  whom  he  had  crushed  in 
my  name,  reappeared  and  subjugated  his  whole  land,  and  his 
son  succeeded  him  upon  the  throne.  The  punishment  which 
the  gods,  who  are  my  strength,  had  drawn  upon  his  father  at 
my  request,  he  told  me  by  his  messengers,  and  he  placed  him- 
self at  my  feet,  saying  :  "  Thou  art  a  king  acknowledged  by 
the  gods.  Thou  cursedst  my  father,  and  misfortune  fell  upon 
him.  Send  me  thy  blessing,  for  I  am  thy  servant,  who  fears 
thee,  and  will  wear  thy  yoke." 


37 1 C  PERSIAN   WTERATURE. 


PURITY. 

*'  Purity  is  the  best  of  all  things ;  purity  is  the  fairest  of 
all  things,  even  as  thou  hast  said,  O  righteous  Zarathustra. " 
With  these  words  the  holy  Ahura-Mazda  rejoiced  the  holy 
Zarathustra:  "Purity  is  for  man,  next  to  life,  the  greatest 
good ;  that  purity  which  is  procured  by  the  law  of  Mazda  to 
him  who  cleanses  his  own  self  with  good  thoughts,  words  and 
deeds. ' ' 

O  Maker  of  the  material  world,  thou  Holy  One!  This 
law,  this  fiend-destroying  law  of  Zarathustra,  by  what  great- 
ness, goodness,  and  fairness  is  it  great,  good,  and  fair  above 
all  other  utterances  ? 

Ahura-Mazda  answered  :  "As  much  above  all  other  floods 
as  is  the  sea,  so  much  above  all  other  utterances  in  greatness, 
goodness,  and  fairness  is  this  law,  this  fiend-destroying  law  of 
Zarathustra.  As  much  as  a  great  stream  flows  swifter  than  a 
slender  rivulet,  so  much  above  all  other  utterances  in  great- 
ness, goodness,  and  fairness  is  this  law,  this  fiend-destroying 
law  of  Zarathustra.  As  high  as  the  great  cypress  tree  stands 
above  the  small  plants  it  overshadows,  so  high  above  all  other 
utterances  in  greatness,  goodness,  and  fairness  is  this  law,  this 
fiend-destroying  law, of  Zarathustra.  As  high  as  heaven  is 
above  the  earth  that  it  compasses  around,  so  high  above  all 
other  utterances  is  this  law,  this  fiend-destroying  law  of 
Zarathustra. 

"  Therefore  when  the  high  priest  has  been  applied  to  by  a 
penitent,  when  any  of  the  Magi  has  been  applied  to,  whether 
for  draona-service*  that  has  been  undertaken  or  that  has  not 
been  undertaken,  the  priest  has  power  to  remit  one-third  of 
the  penalty  he  had  to  pay :  if  he  has  committed  any  other 
evil  deed,  it  is  remitted  by  his  repentance ;  if  he  has  com- 
mitted no  other  evil  deed,  he  is  absolved  by  his  repentance 
forever  and  ever.'* 

*  A  service  in  honor  of  spirits  or  deceaced  persons  in  which  small 
cakes  {jdraona)  are  blessed  in  their  name  and  eaten  by  those  present. 


The  wori^d's  progress.  37 1'^ 


ZOROASTER'S    PRAYER. 

This  Gatha  or  hymn  is  supposed  to  be  a  prayer  prescribed  by 
Zoroaster  for  the  teachers  of  his  religion.  The  first  verse  is  the  prelude 
always  used  before  reciting  or  chanting  any  of  the  Gathas  in  the  Parsi 
religious  service. 

A  strengthening  blessing  is  the  thought,  a  blessing  is  the 
word,  a  blessing  is  the  deed  of  the  righteous  Zarathustra.  May 
the  Bountiful  Immortals  accept  and  help  on  the  chants.  Homage 
to  you,  O  sacred  Gathas  ! 

With  venerating  desire  for  this  gift  of  gracious  help,  O  Mazda, 
and  stretching  forth  my  hands  to  Thee  I  pray  for  the  first  bless- 
ing of  Thy  bountiful  Spirit ;  that  is,  I  beseech  of  Thee  that  my 
actions  toward  all  may  be  performed  in  Righteousness ;  and  with 
this  I  implore  from  Thee  the  understanding  of  Thy  Good  Spirit, 
in  order  that  I  may  propitiate  the  Soul  of  the  Kine. 

And  therefore,  O  Great  Creator,  the  Living  Lord  !  inspired  by 
Thy  Good  Spirit,  I  approach  You,  and  beseech  of  Thee  to  grant 
me  as  a  bountiful  gift  for  both  the  worlds,  that  of  the  body  and 
that  of  mind,  those  attainments  which  are  to  be  derived  from  the 
Divine  Righteousness,  and  by  means  of  which  those  who  receive 
it  may  enter  into  beatitude  and  glory  ! 

O  thou  Divine  Righteousness,  and  thou  Good  Spirit  of  Deity ! 
I  will  worship  you,  and  Ahura  Mazda  the  first,  for  all  of  whom 
the  pious  ready  mind  within  us  is  causing  the  imperishable 
Kingdom  to  advance.  And  while  I  thus  utter  my  supplications 
to  You,  come  Ye  to  my  calls  to  help ! 

Yea,  I  will  approach  You  with  my  supplications,  I  who  am 
delivering  up  my  mind  and  soul  to  that  heavenly  Mount  whither 
all  the  redeemed  at  last  must  pass,  knowing  full  well  the  holy 
characteristics  and  rewards  of  the  actions  prescribed  by  Ahura 
Mazda.  And  so  long  as  I  am  able  and  may  have  the  power,  so 
long  will  I  teach  Your  people  concerning  these  holy  deeds  to  be 
done  by  them  with  faith  toward  God,  and  in  the  desire  for  the 
coming  of  the  Divine  Righteousness  within  their  souls. 

And,  thou  Righteousness!  when  shall  I  see  thee,  knowing 
the  Good  Mind  of  God,  and  above  all  the  Obedience  of  our  lives 
which  constitutes  the  way  to  the  most  beneficent  Ahura  Mazda  ? 
Asking  this,  I  thus  beseech  thee,  for  with  this  holy  word  of  sup- 
plication we  best  keep  ofi"  with  tongue  the  flesh -devouring  fiends, 
the  very  sign  and  power  of  all  spiritual  foulness' 


THE  HEBREWS  AND  THEIR  NEIGHBORS. 


CHAPTER  L 
Syria. 

YRIA  is  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Arabian 
peninsula.  The  word  Syria  is  a  shortened  form 
of  Assyria,  and  was  given  by  the  Greeks,  at  first 
to  the  whole  Assyrian  empire,  and  later  re- 
stricted to  the  strip  of  land  between  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea  and  the  Euphrates  valley.  To- 
day the  name  is  applied  to  the  region  east  of  Palestine,  reach- 
ing to  the  Taurus  mountains  on  the  north  and  on  the  south 
and  west  bounded  by  deserts. 

Its  very  location  determined  that  this  should  never  become 
the  home  of  a  united,  homogeneous  people.  It  has  always  been 
a  highway  connecting  Asia  and  Africa  and  trade  routes  have 
extended  through  it  since  the  earliest  recorded  ages.  Egyptian 
armies  pressing  into  Asia  in  an  early  day  traversed  its  midst 
and  so  did  those  of  somewhat  later  times  pushing  westward 
from  Mesopotamia,  bound  upon  foreign  conquest. 

"  Syria  lies  between  two  continents — Asia  and  Africa ;  be- 
tween two  primeval  homes  of  men — the  valleys  of  the  Euph- 
rates and  the  Nile;  between  two  great  centers  of  empire — 
Western  Asia  and  Egypt:  between  all  these,  representing  the 
Eastern  and  ancient  world,  and  the  Mediterranean,  which  is 
the  gateway  to  the  Western  and  modern  world.  Syria  has 
been  likened  to  a  bridge  between  Asia  and  Africa — a  bridge 
with  the  desert  on  one  side  and  the  sea  upon  the  other; 
and,  in  truth,  all  the  great  invasions  of  Syria,  with  two  ex- 
ceptions, have  been  delivered  across  her  northern  and  south- 
ern ends.  .  .  .  Syria  is  not  only  the  bridge  between  Asia 
and  Africa:  she  is  the  refuge  of  the  drifting  populations  of 
Arabia.  She  has  not  only  been  the  highroad  of  civilizations 
and  the  battle-field  of  empires,  but  the  pasture  and  the  school 

372 


SYRIA.  373 

of  innumerable  little  tribes.  She  has  been  not  merely  an  open 
channel  of  war  and  commerce  for  nearly  the  whole  world,  but 
the  vantage-ground  and  opportunity  of  the  world's  highest 
religions.  In  this  strange  mingling  of  bridge  and  harbour, 
of  highroad  and  field,  of  battle-ground  and  sanctuary,  of 
seclusion  and  opportunity — rendered  possible  through  the  strik- 
ing division  of  her  surface  into  mountain  and  plain — lies  all 
the  secret  of  Syria's  history,  under  the  religion  which  has 
lifted  her  fame  to  glory."* 

The  country  falls  naturally  into  many  small  districts  in 
which  petty  states  have  arisen  but  which  never  developed  into 
strong  kingdoms.  These  have  left  but  scanty  remains  of  their 
civilizations. 

We  know  nothing  of  Syria  prior  to  3500  b.  c.  There  are 
evidences  that  this  region,  like  Chaldea,  was  occupied  first  by 
a  primitive  people,  probably  belonging  to  the  Turanian  race. 
When  a  great  Semitic  outpouring  from  Arabia  caused  the 
ancient  Chaldean  nation  to  be  engulfed  by  a  vigorous  people. 
S}  ria  as  well  suffered  an  invasion. 

During  years  of  Babylonian  dominance,  Syria  fell  to  the 
share  of  Babylonian  kings.  "  The  land  of  the  setting  sun," 
as  they  called  it,  was  named  with  their  possessions. 

When  Thutmose  III.  led  his  armies  into  Asia  to  avenge 
the  insult  done  Egyptian  honor  when  the  Hyksos  kings  ruled 
the  valley  of  the  Nile,  he  established  a  certain  supremacy  over 
Syria  which  lasted  for  perhaps  two  centuries.  He  established 
several  royal  cities,  or  "halting  places" — so  called  because 
his  majesty  tarried  in  them  and  directed  the  construction  of 
fortifications.  Tribute  was  exacted  and  was  paid  with  some 
regularity  until  the  time  of  Amenhotep  IV.  He  was  too 
occupied  with  religious  reformation  and  the  exaltation  of  the 
Solar  Disk  faith  to  give  attention  to  his  foreign  possessions. 
The  Tell-el-Amama  letters  in  many  instances  portray  the 
condition  of  Syria  when  Egypt's  name  was  no  longer  a  pro- 
tection and  incoming  tribes  were  plundering  right  and  left.' 

The  spirit  of  unrest  was  again  abroad  among  the  nations 
and  the  Hittites  now  invaded  Western  Asia.  Who  they  were 
and  from  whence  they  came  has  never  been  satisfactorily  set- 

^George  Adam  Smith :  Historical  Geog.  of  the  Holy  Land.  6.  »  Tell-el- 
Amarna  Letters  described  in  The  Story  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria. 


374  THE  wori^d's  progress. 

tied.  Certain  it  is  they  were  not  Semitic.  They  belonged  to 
the  great  white  race,  but  their  history  is  still  to  be  written. 
Part  of  the  natives  sided  with  them;  part  remained  loyal  to 
Egypt,  and  the  rest  attempted  to  establish  their  own  independ- 
ence. Commerce  was  interrupted,  caravans  were  plundered, 
and  civil  strife  was  general  throughout  the  land.  In  a  brief 
time  the  Hittites  made  themselves  supreme  in  Syria,  which 
became  known  as  the  Land  of  the  Hittites. 

About  1200  B.  c.  a  fresh  invasion  brought  several  new 
tribes,  among  others,  the  Philistines.  They  again  were  prob- 
ably not  Semitics  but  of  the  Aryan  race.  The  Hittite  nation 
was  now  broken  up  into  several  small  states,  none  of  which 
became  as  powerful  as  the  original  nation.  With  the  weak- 
ening of  Hittite  strength,  opportunity  arose  for  petty  states 
to  develop.  The  great  powers  left  the  country  in  peace  for 
three  or  four  hundred  years,  and  Syrian  states  prospered  and 
grew  strong. 

The  era  of  the  Judges  in  Israel  fell  into  this  period,  and 
between  the  Hebrews  and  certain  Syrian  tribes  there  was  in- 
termittent war. 

With  the  reign  of  Tiglath-Pileser  I.  Assyria  launched  forth 
on  her  career  of  conquest.  In  a  westward  march  made  by  this 
conqueror,  northern  Syria  yielded  to  Assyrian  arms  and  offered 
tribute.  Damascus  alone  was  left  undisturbed,  for  opposition 
was  sure  to  be  strong  on  the  part  of  this  ancient  city.  With 
some  intervening  years  during  which  tribute  could  not  be  col- 
lected and  when  allegiance  to  Nineveh  was  denied,  Assyrian 
influence  dominated  Syria,  and  frequently  vigorous  rule  was 
enforced.  When  Assyria  fell,  the  New  Babylonian  empire 
kept  guard  over  the  west.  With  the  end  of  Babylonian  rule, 
and  the  ascendency  of  Persia,  Semitic  dominance  came  to  an 
end.  Under  Persia,  and  later  under  Greece,  new  states  came 
into  existence  and  Aryan  rule  began. 

In  the  ages  with  which  we  are  at  present  concerned,  how- 
ever, Syria  remained  to  the  portion  of  Semitic  tribes.  We 
have  found  Arabia  the  original  home  of  this  race.  Providing 
at  best  but  a  scanty  living  for  her  children,  when  tribes  multi- 
plied rapidly  Arabia  seems  to  have  cast  out  a  portion  of  her 
inhabitants  to  make  room  for  the  rest.  Chaldea — later  Baby- 
lonia— was  peopled  by  such  an  outpouring,  while  at  the  same 


J 


SYRIA.  375 

time  tribes  spread  into  Syria  and  settled  spots  which  promised 
adequate  food  and  pasturage.  Later  comers  were  compelled 
to  journey  past  these  occupied  lands  and  seek  lands  farther 
west,  or  to  overcome  the  natives  and  supplant  them.  Some 
one  has  aptly  said  that  different  tribes  fitted  themselves  into 
the  "  shelves  and  corners  of  Syria,"  and  that  is  just  what  they 
did.  It  would  have  been  as  impossible  for  Syria,  with  its 
irregular  surfaces,  to  have  produced  one  united  nation  as  for 
Greece  or  Switzerland  to  have  contained  a  people  whose 
national  concerns  outweighed  their  local  interests.  Highland 
and  lowland,  plateau  and  plain,  mountain  range  and  valley — 
these  at  length  were  occupied  by  little  clans  or  more  numerous 
tribes,  while  the  more  exposed  regions  were  open  to  the  nomads 
who  came  like  birds  for  a  season,  or  tarried  a  few  brief  years 
and  penetrated  farther  west,  or  who  perhaps  merely  loitered 
on  their  way  to  Egypt — the  land  of  water  and  abundant  grain. 

"  Syria  is  the  northern  and  most  fertile  end  of  the  great 
Semitic  home — the  peninsula  of  Arabia.  But  the  Semitic 
home  is  distinguished  by  its  central  position  in  geography — 
between  Asia  and  Africa,  and  between  the  Indian  Ocean  and 
the  Mediterranean,  which  is  Europe;  and  the  role  in  history 
of  the  Semitic  race  has  been  also  intermediary.  The  Semitics 
have  been  the  great  middlemen  of  the  world.  Not  second- 
rate  in  war,  they  have  risen  to  the  first  rank  in  commerce  and 
religion.  They  have  been  the  carriers  between  East  and  West, 
they  have  stood  between  the  great  ancient  civilizations  and 
those  which  go  to  make  up  the  modem  world ;  while  by  a  higher 
gift,  for  which  their  conditions  neither  in  place  nor  in  time 
fully  account,  they  have  been  mediary  between  God  and  man, 
and  proved  the  religious  teachers  of  the  world,  through  whom 
have  come  its  three  highest  faiths,  its  only  universal  religions. 
Syria's  history  is  her  share  in  this  great  function  of  inter- 
medium, which  has  endured  from  the  earliest  times  to  the 
present  day." ' 

"The  head  of  Syria  is  Damascus,"  wrote  Isaiah  two 
thousand  years  ago.  So  it  has  since  continued  to  be,  with 
short  periods  of  change.  The  venerable  city,  made  possible 
and  beautiful  by  the  waters  of  the  Abana,  has  survived  many 
sacks  and  slaughters.     It  is  sometimes  called  the  oldest  city 

8  Smith:  Hist.  Geog.  of  Holy  Land,  5. 


^•j6  THE  world's   progress. 

in  the  world,  meaning  of  course,  the  one  of  greatest  age  yet 
standing.  Still  it  has  few  relics  of  antiquity.  Old  material 
has  constantly  been  utilized  in  the  construction  of  new  build- 
ings and  monuments.  Its  position  has  often  been  commented 
upon.  "  It  is  an  astonishing  site  for  what  is  said  to  be  the 
oldest,  and  is  certainly  the  most  enduring,  city  of  the  world. 
For  it  is  utterly  incapable  of  defence;  it  is  remote  from  the 
sea  and  the  great  natural  lines  of  commerce.  From  the  coast 
of  Syria  it  is  double  barred  by  those  ranges  of  snow-capped 
mountains  whose  populations  enjoy  more  tempting  prospects 
to  the  north  and  west.  But  look  east  and  you  understand 
Damascus. 

"  You  would  as  soon  think  of  questioning  the  site  of  New 
York  or  of  San  Francisco.  Damascus  is  a  great  harbour  of 
refuge  upon  the  earliest  sea  man  ever  learned  to  navigate.  It 
is  because  there  is  nothing  but  desert  beyond,  or  immediately 
behind  this  site;  because  this  rivei,  the  Abana,  instead  of 
wasting  her  waters  on  a  slight  extension  of  the  fringe  of  fertile 
Syria,  saves  them  in  her  narrow  gorge  till  she  can  fling  them 
well  out  upon  the  desert,  and  there,  instead  of  slowly  expend- 
ing them  on  the  doubtful  possibilities  of  a  province,  lavishes 
all  her  life  at  once  in  the  creation  of  a  single  great  city,  and 
straightway  dies  in  face  of  the  desert — it  is  because  of  all 
this  that  Damascus,  so  remote  and  so  defenceless,  has  endured 
throughout  human  history,  and  must  endure.  Nineveh,  Baby- 
lon and  Memphis  easily  conquered  her — she  probably  preceded 
them,  and  she  has  outlived  them.  She  has  been  twice  sup- 
planted— ^by  Antioch,  and  she  has  seen  Antioch  decay,  by 
Baghdad,  and  Baghdad  is  forgotten.  She  has  been  many 
times  sacked,  and  twice  at  least  the  effective  classes  of  her 
population  have  been  swept  into  captivity,  but  this  has  not 
broken  the  chain  of  her  history.  She  was  once  capital  of  the 
world  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  but  the  vast 
empire  went  from  her  and  the  city  continued  to  flourish  as 
before.  Standing  on  the  utmost  edge  of  fertility,  on  the  shore 
of  the  much-voyaged  desert,  Damascus  is  indispensable  alike 
to  civilization  and  to  the  nomads.  Moreover,  she  is  the  city 
of  the  Mediterranean  world  which  lies  nearest  to  the  far  East, 
and  Islam  has  made  her  the  western  port  of  Mecca."  * 

•  Smith :  Hist  Geog.  of  Holy  Land.  642. 


SYRIA.  377 

Having  traversed  the  desert  wastes,  the  city  of  Damascus 
lies  invitingly  before  the  wearied  traveller.  There  is  an  old 
tradition  that  Mohammet  once  approached  the  town  and  viewed 
it  from  neighboring  hills.  Before  him  lay  its  grateful  shade 
and  restful  streets,  its  tide  of  busy  life,  its  wealth,  its  diver- 
sions— behind  him  lay  the  monotonous  sea  of  sand,  its  parch- 
ing heat  and  treeless  plains.  The  great  religious  teacher  was 
apparently  afraid  to  trust  himself  to  the  enticing  influences 
of  the  city.  He  turned  away,  saying :  "  Man  can  enter  Para- 
dise but  once ;  if  I  pass  into  Damascus  I  shall  be  excluded  from 
the  other  Paradise  reserved  for  the  faithful." 

Our  word  damask  stands  today  in  memory  of  the  age 
when  damask  or  Damascus  silk,  embroidered  in  richest  colors, 
with  threads  of  silver  and  gold,  stood  forth  unmatched  by 
fabrics  of  other  lands.  Today  the  word  is  ordinarily  applied  to 
round  linen  thread,  woven  in  fruit,  flower,  or  conventional 
designs,  as  was  the  silk  originally. 

The  swords  of  Damascus  also  gained  world-renown.  They 
were  so  thin  that  they  could  be  tied  into  knots  without  injuring 
them  in  the  least,  and  so  strong  that  they  would  cut  through 
iron  or  wood  without  being  marred.  A  certain  watery  steel, 
more  true  and  resilient  than  ordinary,  made  the  "trusty  sword 
of  Damascus"  popular  in  many  lands. 

It  lies  beyond  our  province  to  trace  the  comings  and  goings 
of  tribes  within  the  land  of  Syria.  At  best  Syrian  history  is 
fragmentary  and  is  suited  for  the  student  of  the  Semitic  race 
rather  than  the  general  reader.  We  shall  happen  upon  facts 
connected  with  it  as  we  study  the  history  of  the  Hebrews, 
and  the  empire  age  of  the  Mesopotamian  states. 


I   -26 


^•/\i  THE  worIvD's  progress. 

CHAPTER   II. 
The  Land  oe  Phoenicia. 

Geographically,  Phcenicia  was  a  small  state.  It  lay  be- 
tween a  spur  of  the  Taurus  mountains — Mt.  Casius — on  the 
north  and  Carmel  on  the  south ;  washed  by  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  on  the  west,  it  was  protected  by  a  lofty  mountain  range 
on  the  east.  These  natural  boundaries  were  important,  since 
they  shut  in  the  land  and  sheltered  it  in  a  great  measure  from 
invasions  and  plundering  raids. 

About  200  miles  in  length,  Phoenicia  ranged  from  one  to 
thirty-five  miles  in  width.  A  narrow  sandy  coast-belt  skirted  the 
western  side  and  was  covered  with  date-palms,  which  gave  the 
region  its  name.  Greek  sailors,  coasting  along  the  eastern 
shore  of  the  sea,  saw  the  luxuriant  palms  from  afar,  and  called 
the  whole  eastern  coast  Phoenike — Land  of  Palms.  Later, 
learning  more  particularly  of  the  various  nations  which  dwelt 
therein,  they  restricted  the  name  to  the  country  we  are  now 
studying. 

East  of  the  palm  belt  extend  the  fertile  plains  of  Phoenicia. 
Here  grew  gardens,  orchards  and  fields  of-grain,  which  made 
the  district  a  veritable  paradise.  "  *  The  cultivated  tract 
presents  for  the  most  part  an  unbroken  mass  of  corn,  out  of 
which  rise  here  and  there  slight  eminences  in  the  midst  of 
gardens  and  orchards — the  sites  of  cities.'  The  gardens  are 
gay  with  scarlet  blossoms  of  the  pomegranate,  the  orchards 
famous  for  the  enormous  oranges  which  diversify  the  green 
foliage  of  their  shady  groves."  *  Here  was  grown  the  food 
supply  which  supported  the  whole  population  of  the  country, 
generally  speaking,  while  on  the  low  hills  which  bounded  the 
plain  on  the  east,  the  vine,  olive  and  mulberry  were  cultivated. 
At  last,  the  high  mountains  arose,  bare  in  spots  and  else- 
where covered  with  forest  trees — oaks,  chestnuts  and  the 
mighty  cedars. 

Several  streams,  mountain-born,  rushed  down  steep  sides, 
furnished  moisture  and  added  fertility  to  the  plains,  then  found 

'  Rawlinson :  Phoenicia,  Z, 


THE    STORY    OF    PHOENICIA.  379 

their  way  to  the  sea.  Chief  of  these  in  early  times,  as  today, 
was  the  Litany.  This  river  rises  10,000  feet  above  the  sea, 
and  "  forces  its  way  through  Lebanon  by  a  deep  and  narrow 
gorge,  in  which  it  frets  and  chafes  many  hundred  feet  below 
the  eye  of  the  spectator,  descending  precipitously,  and  at  last 
debouching  upon  the  plain  by  a  ravine,  about  five  miles  north- 
east of  Tyre.  It  has  been  compared  to  a  *  monster  serpent 
chained  in  the  yawning  gulf,  where  she  writhes  and  struggles 
evermore  to  escape  from  her  dark  and  narrow  prison,  but 
always  in  vain,  save  only  near  the  sea-shore,  where  her  wind- 
ings reach  a  close.'  "  " 

Irregularities  of  the  coast  supplied  harbors  which  would 
be  quite  inadequate  for  modern  ships,  but  sufficed  for  the  ves- 
sels of  antiquity.  Fringes  of  islets,  near  the  shore,  made 
refuge  for  sailors  in  time  of  storm  in  an  age  when  no  boats 
drew  deep  water,  and  when  even  the  largest  might  be  drawn 
up  on  the  beach  if  necessary. 

The  climate  of  Phoenicia  varied  according  to  the  locality. 
That  of  the  plain  was  mild  and  pleasant,  while  snow  lay  most 
of  the  year  upon  the  mountain  peaks  rising  easterly.  The 
scenery  of  the  narrow  strip  changes  constantly  as  one  journeys 
east  or  west.  Islands  of  the  Mediterranean  invited  the  sailor 
to  venture  far  out  from  his  native  shore,  and  at  an  early  period 
the  sea  was  dotted  over  by  the  merchant-ships  of  the  Phoeni- 
cians. East,  north  and  south  high  mountains  offer  a  varied 
aspect  to  the  traveller.  The  Lebanon  range  has  always  been 
notably  beautiful.  "  The  elevation  rises  gradually  as  w<»  pro- 
ceed north-ward,  until  the  range  culminates  in  the  peaks  above 
the  cedars,  which  are  estimated  to  attain  a  height  of  from  nine 
thousand  to  ten  thousand  feet.  .  .  .  Garden  cultivation 
carpets  the  base  of  the  mountain;  above  this  is,  for  the  most 
part,  a  broad  fringe  of  olive  groves;  higher  up,  the  hill  sides 
are  carefully  terraced,  not  an  inch  of  ground  being  wasted; 
and  among  sharp  cliffs  and  pointed  rocks  of  a  grey-white  hue 
are  strips  of  cornfields,  long  rows  of  dwarf  mulberries,  figs, 
apricots,  apples,  walnuts,  and  other  fruit  trees.  Gorges, 
ravines,  charming  glens,  deep  valleys,  diversify  the  mountain 
sides;  here  and  there  are  tremendous  chasms,  with  precipices 
that  go  sheer  down  for  a  thousand  feet;  tiny  rivulets  bound 

2  Rawlinson :  Phoenicia,  11. 


380  THE  world's   progress. 

and  leap  from  rock  to  rock  and  from  terrace  to  terrace,  form- 
ing chains  of  cascades,  refreshing  and  fertilizing  all  around. 
In  the  deep  gorges  flow  copious  streams,  shaded  by  overhang- 
ing woods  of  pines  or  cedars;  and  towards  the  summit  are  in 
several  places  magnificent  cedar  groves,  remnants  of  the 
primeval  forest  which  once  clothed  the  greater  part  of  the 
mountain.  Above  all  towers  the  bare  limestone  of  the  dorsal 
ridge,  always  white  enough  to  justify  the  name  Lebanon 
(White  Mountain),  and  for  eight  months  of  the  year  clothed 
with  a  mantle  of  snow."  ^ 

Semitic  tribes,  journeying  out  of  Arabia  at  a  remote 
period,  crossed  into  Chaldea,  and  after  a  sojourn  which  can- 
not now  be  estimated,  worked  their  way  westward  to  the 
region  just  described.  In  all  probability  Turanians  held  the 
territory.  With  these  they  intermingled  and  inter-married, 
while  kinsmen  coming  later  from  the  old  Arabian  home,  kept 
the  stock  nearly  pure  Semitic. 

One  of  the  oldest  settlements  was  made  at  Sidon,  the 
name  of  the  town  commemorating  the  earliest  occupation  of 
its  people.  Sidon  signifies  fishery,  and  it  is  supposed  that  the 
first  comers  were  fishermen.  In  later  years  when  Sidon  was 
the  wealthiest  city  in  Western  Asia,  and  when  her  proud 
merchantmen  had  left  nets  to  the  portion  of  the  humblest 
born,  the  early  name  stood  in  memory  of  primitive  days. 

Sidon  was  built  on  the  shore,  while  her  natural  harbor 
consisted  of  a  little  circlet  of  islands  which  afforded  shelter  for 
sailing  crafts.  An  excellent  harbor  was  constructed  with  this 
breakwater,  but  it  is  significant  to  note  that  Sidon's  strong- 
holds were  on  the  shore. 

Some  of  her  inhabitants  at  length  departed  from  the 
mother-city  and  settled  at  Tyre,  near  the  southern  part  of  the 
Phoenician  coast.  The  word  Tyre  means  rock,  and  while  set- 
tlements were  made  on  the  shore  as  well,  the  famous  city  of 
antiquity  was  built  on  an  island,  half  a  mile  from  the  main- 
land. This  island  was  about  two  and  one-half  miles  in  width 
and  was  completely  surrounded  by  a  wall,  one  hundred  feet 
high.  With  water  around  her  and  mighty  walls  as  well.  Tyre 
was  wellnigh  impregnable  in  times  of  siege. 

The  little  town  of  Dora  grew  up  where  shell-fish  abounded 

•RawlLnson:  Phoenicia,  17. 


THE    STORY    OF    PHOENICIA.  381 

These  were  valued  for  a  secretion  they  yielded  which  was  made 
up  into  1  dye  of  royal  purple,  world-renowned  in  ancient  times. 
Gebal  became  famous  for  its  shipyards.  Tripolis  gained  celeb- 
rity as  bead  of  a  league  of  cities  made  up  of  Tyre,  Aradus  and 
Tripolis. 

The  Phoenicians  left  no  history  of  their  country.  No  other 
ancient  people  came  in  contact  with  so  many  nations  and  none 
had  more  material  at  hand  from  which  to  formulate  a  record 
of  their  time,  but  they  were  a  nation  of  traders  and  appear 
to  have  been  quite  lacking  in  literature  of  their  own  and  in 
chroniclers  of  any  sort.  Not  only  is  there  utter  dearth  of 
writings,  but  ruins  and  remains  of  Phoenician  civilization  are 
comparatively  few.  The  Phoenicians  built  well,  but  their 
structures  were  either  torn  down  by  ruthless  conquerors,  or, 
like  those  of  Carthage,  became  quarries  for  other  nations. 
We  are  consequently  forced  to  reconstruct  their  history  from 
other  sources — from  writings  of  men  of  other  lands,  often 
hostile  to  them  and  so  prejudiced  in  their  point  of  view.  The 
characteristic  life  of  the  Phoenicians  led  into  the  busy  marts 
of  men — not  to  the  library  or  cloister,  and  a  study  of  their 
history  involves  a  study  of  the  commerce  of  their  time. 

It  is  doubtful  whether  the  future  can  produce  material  for 
any  complete  history  of  Phoenicia.  We  know  practically  noth- 
ing of  the  prehistoric  period  in  the  countrj^  and  when  reports 
of  the  nation  begin,  the  people  had  already  reached  a  high 
proficiency  on  the  sea  and  possessed  wealthy  cities.  The  com- 
mercial spirit,  so  strong  in  the  Semitic  race  seems  to  have 
reached  its  extreme  expression  in  the  people  of  this  little  state. 
If  they  possessed  any  aptitude  for  pursuits  other  than  trading, 
we  know  little  of  them.  In  the  periods  known  to  us  there  was 
no  national  life  nor  government.  Each  city  developed  inde- 
pendently and  appears  to  have  had  only  commercial  ambitions. 

The  natural  contour  of  the  land  allowed  the  people  to  build 
up  a  mighty  system  of  trade  which  penetrated  into  every 
country  known  to  antiquity,  while  their  sea-ports  remained 
long  protected  from  aggressive  rulers  of  Egypt  and  Mesopo- 
tamia. 

The  Phoenician  cities  were  mentioned  as  early  as  1475 
B.  c,  when  Thutmose  III.  made  his  strength  felt  in  Western 
Asia.  They  united  with  the  Hittite  nation  against  him,  but 
were  defeated  and  made  gifts  of  submission. 


382  THS  wori,d's  progress. 

Sidon  was  the  older  city,  and  tradition  has  it  that  about 
1200  B.  c.  the  Philistines — earlier  inhabitants  of  the  country — 
fought  a  battle  with  Sidon  and  defeated  her,  whereupon  some 
of  her  citizens  escaped  and  founded  Tyre.  Quite  as  probable 
is  a  more  recent  supposition  that  Sidon,  wealthy  and  given 
over  to  ease  and  pleasure,  gradually  weakened,  while  the 
younger  and  more  vigorous  town  of  Tyre  became  the  leader. 

Hiram  seems  to  have  been  the  most  renowned  king  of 
Tyre.  He  enlarged  the  island  upon  which  the  city  stood.  Fill- 
ing in  the  lagoon  between  two  islands,  he  joined  them  together, 
forming  thus  one  large  island.  Being  a  prolific  builder,  he 
erected  huge  structures  of  stone,  which  together  with  wood, 
made  up  the  building  material  of  Phoenicia. 

For  some  time  previous  to  his  reign,  Judah  had  been  grow- 
ing in  strength.  She  had  held  out  against  the  Philistines, 
and  was  being  welded  into  a  well  organized  state.  Hiram 
considered  it  good  policy  to  seek  the  friendship  of  Judah's  king, 
and  he  and  King  David  remained  good  friends.  This  same 
friendship  was  offered  to  Solomon  when  he  succeeded  his 
father  as  ruler  of  the  Hebrews,  and  aid  was  given  the  Hebrews 
in  the  construction  of  their  temple,  Phoenician  timber  and 
skilled  workmen  being  supplied.  An  account  of  the  matter 
has  come  to  us  from  the  Hebrews :  "  And  Hiram,  king  of 
Tyre,  sent  his  servants  unto  Solomon;  for  he  had  heard  that 
they  had  anointed  him  king  in  the  room  of  his  father:  for 
Hiram  was  ever  a  lover  of  David.  And  Solomon  sent  to 
Hiram  saying :  *  Thou  knowest  how  that  David  my  father 
could  not  build  an  house  unto  the  name  of  the  Lord  his  God 
for  the  wars  which  were  about  him  on  every  side,  until  the 
Lord  put  them  under  the  soles  of  his  feet.  But  now  the 
Lord  my  God  hath  given  me  rest  on  every  side,  so  that  there 
is  neither  adversary  nor  evil  occurrent.  And  behold,  I  pur- 
pose to  build  an  house  unto  the  name  of  the  Lord  my  God, 
as  the  Lord  spake  unto  David,  my  father,  saying :  *  Thy  son 
whom  I  will  set  upon  thy  throne  in  thy  room,  he  shall  build 
an  house  unto  my  name.  Now  therefore  command  thou  that 
they  hew  me  cedar  trees  out  of  Lebanon;  and  my  servants 
shall  be  with  thy  servants ;  and  unto  thee  will  I  give  hire  for 
thy  servants  according  to  all  that  thou  shalt  appoint :  for  thou 
knowest  that  there  is  not  among  us  any  that  can  skill  to  hew 
timber  like  unto  the  Sidonians.* 


THE    STORY    OF    PHOENICIA.  383 

"  And  it  came  to  pass,  when  Hiram  heard  the  words  of 
Solomon,  that  he  rejoiced  greatly,  and  said:  *  Blessed  be  the 
Lord  this  day,  which  hath  given  unto  David  a  wise  son  over 
this  great  people.'  And  Hiram  sent  to  Solomon,  saying:  *  I 
have  considered  the  things  which  thou  sentest  to  me  for;  and 
I  will  do  all  thy  desire  concerning  timber  of  cedar  and  con- 
cerning timber  of  fir.  My  servants  shall  bring  them  down 
from  Lebanon  unto  the  sea :  and  I  will  convey  them  by  sea  in 
floats  unto  the  place  that  thou  shalt  appoint  me,  and  I  will 
cause  them  to  be  discharged  there,  and  thou  shalt  receive  them : 
and  thou  shalt  accomplish  my  desire,  in  giving  food  for  my 
household.' 

"  So  Hiram  gave  Solomon  cedar  trees  and  fir  trees  accord- 
ing to  all  his  desire.  And  Solomon  gave  Hiram  twenty  thou- 
sand measures  of  wheat  for  food  to  his  household,  and  twenty 
measures  of  pure  oil:  thus  gave  Solomon  to  Hiram  year  by 
year.  .  .  .  And  there  was  peace  between  Hiram  and  Solo- 
mon; and  they  two  made  a  league  together.  .  »  .  And 
the  king  commanded  and  they  brought  great  stones,  costly 
stones,  and  hewed  stones,  to  lay  the  foundation  of  the  house. 
And  Solomon's  builders  and  Hiram's  builders  did  hew  them, 
and  the  stonequarriers :  so  they  prepared  timber  and  stones  to 
build  the  house."  * 

The  temple  stood  at  last  a  memorial  to  the  skillful  work- 
manship of  Phoenicia  as  well  as  a  tribute  of  honor  to  Jehovah, 
God  of  Israel. 

After  the  death  of  Hiram,  during  whose  reign  the  country 
had  prospered,  the  government  soon  passed  from  his  family. 
A  class  of  wealthy  merchants  had  arisen  in  Tyre  and  they  de- 
manded official  positions  for  themselves.  The  king  they 
crowned  became  king  of  Sidon  as  well.  Before  1000  b.  C. 
exiles  from  Tyre,  driven  out  for  political  reasons,  founded 
Carthage,  best  known  of  all  Phoenicia's  colonies. 

As  early  as  880  b.  c.  danger  threatened  Phoenicia  from 
Assyria.  Protected  by  the  efficient  barrier  of  a  mountain 
range,  the  commercial  ports  had  been  free  to  develop  their 
trade  without  serious  interruption.  They  immediately  offered 
to  pay  tribute  rather  than  fight,  and  Assyrian  tablets  recount 
products  sent  by  them. 
«I  Kings,  5. 1-18. 


384  THE  world's  progress. 

By  727  B.  c.  the  yoke  of  Assyria  had  become  oppressive 
and  Tyre  revolted.  A  siege  of  five  years  followed  and  wa? 
at  length  raised  with  no  result,  for  Tyre  could  not  be  cut  off 
from  the  sea.  About  680  b.  c.  Baal  was  crowned  king  ol 
Tyre  with  the  consent  of  the  Assyrian  ruler.  Nevertheless; 
he  shortly  announced  his  independence  and  became  a  sturdy 
opponent  of  Assyrian  aggression.  In  668  b.  c.  Asshurbanipal 
led  an  army  against  the  sea-coast  cities,  especially  against  the 
most  powerful,  Tyre. 

"  Against  Baal,  King  of  Tyre,  dwelling  in  the  midst  of 
the  sea,  I  went,  because  my  royal  will  he  disregarded,  and  did 
not  harken  unto  the  words  of  my  mouth.  Towers  round 
about  him  I  raised,  and  over  his  people  I  strengthened  the 
watch.  On  land  and  sea  his  forts  I  took;  his  going  out  T 
stopped.  Brackish  water  and  sea  water  their  mouths  drank 
to  preserve  their  lives.  With  a  strong  blockade,  which  re- 
moved not,  I  besieged  them ;  their  spirits  I  humbled  and  caused 
to  melt  away;  to  my  yoke  I  made  them  submissive."  When 
Assyria  was  threatened  by  Median  power,  the  cities  on  the 
coast  again  shook  themselves  free  from  the  hated  tribute  and 
at  this  juncture  Tyre  rose  to  her  greatest  influence.  About 
600  B.  c.  Egypt  tried  to  bring  Western  Asia  under  her  domin- 
ance and  under  her  direction  Phoenician  sailors  circumnavi- 
gated Africa. 

Nebuchadnezzar  determined  to  end  rebellions  in  the  west 
for  all  time  and  to  bring  the  coast  under  Babylonian  rule. 
Tyre  held  out  against  him  and  a  siege  of  thirteen  years  ensued, 
The  Hebrew  prophet  Ezekiel  foretold  the  result: 

"  Behold  I  am  against  thee,  O  Tyre,  and  will  cause  many 
nations  to  come  up  against  thee,  as  the  sea  causeth  his  waves 
to  come  up.  And  they  shall  destroy  the  walls  of  Tyre,  and 
break  down  her  towers:  1  will  also  scrape  her  dust  from  her, 
and  make  her  like  the  top  of  a  rock.     .     .     . 

"  Behold  I  will  bring  upon  Tyre  Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of 
Babylon,  a  king  of  kings,  from  the  north  with  horses,  and 
with  chariots  and  with  horsemen,  and  companies,  and  much 
people.  He  shall  slay  with  the  sword  thy  daughters  in  the 
field :  and  he  shall  make  a  fort  against  thee,  and  cast  a  mount 
against  thee,  and  lift  up  the  buckler  against  thee.  And  he 
shall  set  engines  of  war  against  thy  walls,  and  with  his  axes 


THE    STORY    OF    PHOENICIA.  385 

he  shall  break  down  thy  towers.  By  reason  of  the  abundance 
of  his  horses  their  dust  shall  cover  thee :  thy  walls  shall  shake 
at  the  noise  of  the  horsemen,  and  of  the  wheels  and  of  the 
chariots,  when  he  shall  enter  into  thy  gates,  as  men  enter  into 
a  city  wherein  is  made  a  breach.  With  the  hoofs  of  his  horses 
shall  he  tread  down  all  thy  streets:  he  shall  slay  thy  people 
by  the  sword,  and  thy  strong  garrisons  shall  go  down  to  the 
ground.  And  they  shall  make  a  spoil  of  thy  riches,  and  make 
a  prey  of  thy  merchandise:  and  they  shall  break  down  thy 
walls,  and  destroy  thy  pleasant  houses :  and  they  shall  lay  thy 
stones  and  thy  timber  and  thy  dust  in  the  midst  of  the  water. 

"  And  I  will  cause  the  noise  of  thy  songs  to  cease ;  and 
the  sound  of  thy  harps  shall  be  no  more  heard.  And  I  will 
make  thee  like  the  top  of  a  rock:  thou  shalt  be  a  place  to 
spread  nets  upon." ' 

These  prophecies  were  fulfilled,  and  having  rallied  again, 
and  once  more  sent  forth  their  merchant  vessels,  these  cities 
fell  shortly  to  the  share  of  Persia.  Cambyses  depended  wholly 
upon  their  navy,  so  that  when  Phoenician  sailors  refused  to 
sweep  down  upon  Carthage,  he  was  obliged  to  abandon  his 
idea  of  subduing  that  colony.* 

In  362  B.  c.  Sidon  revolted  against  Persian  oppression. 
When  at  last  the  fall  of  their  city  was  at  hand,  40,000  Sidon- 
ians  shut  themselves  in  their  houses  and  set  fire  to  them  rather 
than  become  spoils  for  the  conqueror. 

Some  years  later,  when  the  young  Macedonia  conqueror, 
Alexander  the  Great,  reached  this  district  in  course  of  his  brief 
conquest,  the  Phoenician  cities,  wearied  of  Persian  taxes,  hailed 
his  coming  with  joy.  One  after  another,  the  towns  sent 
presents  until  it  was  left  for  Tyre  alone  to  do  homage  to  the 
young  monarch.  Her  citizens  sent  an  embassy  to  meet  him 
with  a  crown  of  gold  and  announced  their  willingness  to  do 
his  bidding.  Alexander  replied  that  he  was  pleased  by  their 
action  and  would  visit  their  city  to  offer  sacrifices  in  their 
temple— for  the  Greeks  identified  the  god  of  the  Phoenicians 
with  their  Hercules.  The  reply  being  made  known  in  the 
city,  the  people  feared  that  some  hidden  purpose  prompted  the 
Greek  to  seek  their  island  home,  and  they  sent  to  him  again 
saying  that  they  would  pay  whatever  tribute  he  exacted,  but 

e^^kiel  26,  3-14.    •  See  The  Story  of  the  Persians. 


386  THS  world's  progress. 

that  they  did  not  wish  the  Greek  army  to  march  through  their 
streets.  This  angered  Alexander  and  he  announced  that  if 
the  gates  of  Tyre  did  not  open  to  him,  he  would  open  them  by 
force.  Tyre  had  withstood  many  a  siege  and  she  did  not 
hesitate  to  take  a  firm  stand.  Carthaginians  who  chanced 
to  be  within  her  walls  advised  that  help  would  be  forthcoming 
were  it  needed,  and  it  was  supposed  furthermore,  that  Persia 
would  never  see  her  empire  turned  over  to  the  Greeks  with- 
out a  struggle.  Above  all,  Tyre  had  faith  in  the  strength  of 
her  walls  and  in  her  fleet. 

Sieges  in  the  past  had  often  failed  because  Tyre  could  not 
be  approached  by  battering  rams  and  engines  of  war.  As  has 
already  been  said,  the  island  upon  which  the  city  stood  lay 
one-half  mile  from  the  shore.  Her  harbors  were  the  best  on 
the  Phoenician  coast.  One  lay  on  the  north  side  and  was 
called  the  Sidonian  harbor  because  it  looked  towards  Sidon; 
the  other  was  on  the  south  side,  and  was  called  the  Egyptian 
harbor  since  it  faced  the  land  of  the  pyramids.  Stone  piers 
ran  out  some  considerable  distance  in  the  sea  and  made  safe 
refuge  for  vessels  in  stormy  weather.  Rough  winds  might 
have  made  entrance  to  the  port  impossible  had  the  harbor 
extended  on  one  side  only,  hence  the  two  harbors  were  early 
constructed  and  were  connected  by  a  canal,  extending  through 
the  city,  making  it  thus  possible  for  a  ship  to  enter  by  one 
harbor  and  clear  port  from  the  other. 

Now  Alexander  conceived  the  bold  design  of  building 
a  broad  bridge  or  mole  from  the  continent  to  the  island,  that 
he  might  bring  his  war  engines  up  to  the  city  walls.  Forth- 
with, operations  were  started  on  the  shore,  in  shallow  water. 
Two  rows  of  piles  were  driven  200  feet  from  each  other  and 
the  intervening  distance  was  filled  in  with  earth  and  stone. 
When  the  mole  reached  out  where  the  force  of  the  current 
was  felt,  however,  the  earthwork  was  carried  away  as  rapidly 
as  it  was  built.  Moreover,  the  Tyrians  grasped  his  plan  and 
harried  the  laborers  continually.  They  brought  their  boats 
near  enough  to  attack  them  and  compel  them  to  abandon  their 
undertaking.  The  Greeks  met  this  obstacle  by  preparing  a 
curtain  of  hides  to  cover  the  workmen,  and  raised  two  lofty 
wooden  towers  wherein  soldiers  were  stationed  to  charge  upon 
ships  interfering  with  the  work.     The  citizens  of  Tyre  there- 


THE    STORY    OF    PHOKNIGIA.  387 

Upon  equipped  one  of  their  largest  transports  as  a  fire-ship, 
and  fining  it  with  all  sorts  of  combustible  material,  sent  it 
floating  against  the  Greek  towers,  a  mass  of  fire.  This  was 
effectual,  and  Alexander  returned  from  a  temporary  absence 
to  find  the  work  of  weeks  obliterated.  This  general  never 
allowed  confronting  obstacles  to  baffle  him,  and  under  his  per- 
sonal supervision  the  labor  began  anew.  The  struggle  had 
come  to  mean  more  than  the  subjection  of  an  independent  city 
— it  signified  Greek  capacity  and  ingenuity  against  Asiatic 
opposition  on  the  very  threshold  of  a  coveted  continent. 

Earth,  trees  and  stones  were  hurled  rapidly  into  the  sea, 
but  Tyrian  divers  with  grappling  hooks  dragged  out  whole 
trees  and  brush,  destroying  the  solidity  of  the  mass.  Then 
Alexander  realized  that  he  could  accomplish  nothing  without 
a  navy.  Without  aid  of  a  fleet  he  might  be  detained  indefi- 
nitely with  one  obstinate  city.  He  immediately  levied  vessels 
and  crews  from  those  towns  which  had  already  surrendered  to 
him.  As  fate  would  have  it,  the  Persian  fleet  came  voluntarily 
into  his  hands  and  shortly  224  vessels  were  ready  to  move 
against  Tyre.  Under  their  protection  the  construction  of  the 
mole  went  on  rapidly.  Tyre  soon  understood  that  her  only 
hope  lay  in  chancing  a  sea  battle.  The  number  of  ships  against 
her  was  overwhelming,  and  after  a  gallant  start,  she  was 
defeated. 

"  The  last  chance  was  over — the  last  effort  had  failed — 
but  the  Tyrians  would  not  give  in  any  the  more.  They  still 
met  every  attack  upon  the  walls  with  a  determined  resistance, 
and  with  a  fertiUty  of  resource  that  was  admirable.  To 
deaden  the  blows  of  the  battering-ram,  and  the  force  of  the 
stones  hurled  from  the  catapults,  leather  bags  filled  with  sea- 
weed were  let  down  from  the  walls  at  the  point  assailed. 
Wheels  set  in  rapid  motion  intercepted  the  darts  and  javelins 
thrown  into  the  town,  turning  them,  aside,  or  blunting,  or 
sometimes  breaking  them.  When  the  towers  erected  upon 
the  mole  were  brought  close  up  to  the  defences,  and  an  attempt 
was  made  to  throw  bridges  from  them  to  the  battlements, 
and  thus  to  pass  soldiers  into  the  city,  the  Tyrians  flung  grap- 
pling-hooks  among  the  soldiers  on  the  bridges,  which  caught 
in  the  bodies  of  some,  mangling  them  terribly,  dragging  their 
shields  from  others,  and  hauled  some  bodily  into  the  air,  dash- 


388  THE  world's  progress. 

ing  them  against  the  wall  or  upon  the  ground.  Masses  of 
red-hot  metal  were  prepared  and  hurled  against  the  towers 
and  against  the  scaling  parties.  Sand  was  heated  to  a  glow 
and  showered  upon  all  who  approached  the  foot  of  the  walls : 
it  penetrated  through  the  joints  of  the  armour,  and  caused 
such  intolerable  pain,  that  the  coats  of  mail  were  torn  off  and 
flung  aside,  whereupon  the  sufferers  were  soon  put  hors  de 
combat  by  lance  thrusts  and  missiles.  The  battering-rams 
were  attacked  by  engines  constructed  for  the  purpose,  which 
brought  sharp  scythes,  attached  to  long  poles,  into  contact  with 
the  ropes  and  thongs  used  in  working  them,  and  cut  them 
through.  Further,  wherever  the  wall  showed  signs  of  giving 
way,  the  defenders  began  to  construct  an  inner  wall,  to  take 
the  place  of  the  outer  one,  when  it  should  be  demolished."  ' 

When  the  walls  at  length  gave  way  and  soldiers  made  an 
entrance  into  the  town,  they  had  to  fight  a  battle  in  every 
house  and  win  their  ground  in  street  and  building,  foot  by 
foot.  Ten  thousand  were  massacred  and  thirty  thousand 
women  and  children  were  sold  into  slavery.  The  city  was 
left  in  332  b.  c.  in  a  half-ruined  condition  with  few  inhabi- 
tants. In  a  few  years  Tyre  rose  again  but  the  days  of  her 
greatness  were  gone. 

We  have  seen  that  during  the  first  part  of  her  history 
Phoenicia  was  left  practically  alone  and  during  the  later  portion 
suffered  repeated  attacks.  How  can  we  account  for  the  fre- 
quent despoiling  of  her  proud  cities  during  her  later  years? 
Owing  to  their  position  and  consequent  trade,  the  Phoenician 
cities  became  wealthy  rapidly.  They  naturally  attracted  the 
notice  of  kings  who  were  trying  to  carry  on  extensive  pro- 
jects at  home.  Those  who  conquered  them,  or  who  sought 
to  do  so,  coveted  their  riches  for  the  adornment  of  their  own 
capitals  or  for  some  personal  enterprise  at  home.  So  advan- 
tageous was  the  situation  of  these  cities  that,  left  crippled 
and  in  ruins  by  the  enemy,  or  under  less  severe  circumstances, 
forced  to  pay  a  heavy  tribute,  losses  were  quickly  made  good, 
and  the  stricken  towns  would  soon  again  be  amassing  wealth. 
Having  control  of  the  greater  portion  of  the  commerce  of 
their  day,  they  were  able  to  exchange  commodities  of  slight 
value  with  nations  who  possessed  gold  or  other  precious  wares 

'  Rawlinson ;  Phoenicia,  231 . 


THE    STORY    OF    PHOENICIA. 


389 


and  knew  nothing  of  their  value,  save  that  they  were  thereby 
enabled  to  procure  articles  they  desired.  "  Gold  for  brass, 
the  worth  of  a  hundred  oxen  for  the  value  of  nine," — it  was 
this  opportunity,  recognized  and  seized  upon,  which  made  it 
possible  for  this  little  strip  of  land  to  become  the  store-house 
of  riches  coveted  by  nations  on  all  sides. 

Concerning  the  political  history  of  Phoenicia  we  know  little, 
as  has  already  been  said.  When  her  wealthy  cities  were 
attacked  by  foreigners,  these  strangers  have  sometimes  told 
the  story  from  their  own  point  of  view,  but  so  far  as  govern- 
ment in  times  of  peace,  local  administration  and  kindred  mat- 
ters, material  has  not  survived  to  allow  its  course  of  progress 
to  be  reconstructed. 


< 

l-H 

u 

s 

u 
0 

u 
w 

0 

s 

0 

< 

— 

-«>" 

A 

A 

A 

A 

s 

^ 

B 

B 

> 

c 

<C 

C 

A 

t>D 

D 

D 

^ 

y^ 

E 

E 

Y 

c 

F 

F 

C 

G 

an 

CH 

H 

H 

i 

1 

1 

1 
J 

^ 

K 

K 

K 

Ix 

l^L 

L 

Vv\ 

/^ 

M 

M 

^ 

tv 

N 

N 

0 

6 

0 

0 

0 

r 

rp 

P 

9 

9 

9Q 

Q 

q 

n 

R 

R 

w 

kZ 

^S 

S 

T 

T 

T 

T 

GROWTH    OF   THE   ALPHABET. 


390  THE  wori^d's  progress. 


CHAPTER   III. 
Phoenician  Coi<onies  and  Commerce. 

It  is  natural  to  consider  Phoenicia's  colonies  in  connection 
with  her  commerce,  for  while  many  nations  have  colonized 
regions  remote  for  the  purpose  of  extending  their  territory 
or  perpetuating  a  faith,  her  outposts  were  opened  solely  for 
the  benefit  of  trade.  Phoenicia's  colonies  may  be  said  to  have 
been  the  outgrowth  of  her  mercantile  concerns,  although  in 
some  instances,  dissatisfaction  with  political  conditions  in  the 
home  city  proved  an  additional  incentive. 

Probably  the  first  foreign  settlement  was  made  in  Egypt. 
Desiring  to  control  routes  of  trade  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile, 
Tyrians  obtained  permission  to  settle  in  Memphis.  This  set- 
tlement could  hardly  be  called  a  colony  in  the  ordinary  sense 
of  the  word,  for  the  home  city  exercised  no  political  control 
over  those  of  its  subjects  dwelling  in  Egypt — nor  did  it  seek 
to  do  so.  Phoenicia  excelled  in  trade — ^not  government.  With 
this  station  at  Memphis,  Tyre  was  able  to  obtain  not  only 
products  of  the  valley  but  those  also  which  were  brought  into 
Egypt  from  the  south.  Ivory,  ebony,  skins,  ostrich  feathers, 
grain,  pottery,  glass — ^these  and  other  commodities  here  avail- 
able were  shipped  away  for  consumption  in  Italy,  Greece  and 
Asia  Minor.  The  Egyptians,  so  resentful  of  foreigners  ordi- 
narily, appear  to  have  found  the  Phoenicians  unobjectionable 
and  of  actual  service  to  them.  The  little  colony  was  allowed 
to  maintain  its  own  customs,  and  it  is  supposed  that  a  temple 
sacred  to  Astoreth  was  erected  here  as  early  as  1250  b.  c. 

The  islands  west  of  Tyre  were  early  peopled  by  Phoeni- 
cians, or,  at  least,  contained  Phoenician  settlements.  Timber 
suitable  for  ship-building  was  obtained  in  Cilicia,  copper  and 
precious  stones  in  Cyprus,  pine  lumber  and  figs  in  Rhodes. 

Utica,  on  the  Gulf  of  Tunis,  was  an  early  colony  on  the 
African  side  of  the  Mediterranean.  Coasting  alone  this  shore, 
the  sea-farers  came  to  Spain,  where  they  established  important 
trading  points.  They  penetrated  as  far  west  as  the  Corn- 
wall mines,  which  supplied  an  inexhaustible  amount  of  tin. 


SOCIAI,    UFS   IN    PHOENICIA.  39I 

The  islands  off  the  Cornish  coast  they  called  the  "  Cassiterides  " 
or  Tin  Islands. 

"  Phoenician  colonization — or  colonization  from  Phoenicia 
Proper — was  in  all  probability  limited  within  the  extremes  of 
the  Dardanelles  to  the  north,  Memphis  to  the  south,  and 
Gadeira  and  the  Cassiterides  to  the  west.  It  was  less  widely 
diffused  than  the  Greek,  and  less  generally  spread  over  the 
coasts  accessible  to  it.  With  a  few  exceptions,  the  colonies 
fall  into  three  groups — first,  those  of  the  Eastern  Mediter- 
ranean and  Aegean,  beginning  with  Cyprus  and  terminating 
with  Cythera ;  secondly  those  of  the  Central  Mediterranean,  in 
North  Africa,  Sicily,  and  the  adjacent  islands;  and  thirdly, 
those  of  the  Western  Mediterranean,  chiefly  on  the  south  coast 
of  Spain,  with  perhaps  a  few  on  the  opposite  (African)  shore. 
The  other  settlements,  commonly  called  Phoenician  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  Spain,  in  the  Balearic  Islands,  in  Corsica  and 
Elba;  and  again  those  on  the  Western  Africa  coast,  between 
the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  and  the  Cape  de  Verde,  were  Punic  or 
Carthaginian,  rather  than  Phoenician."* 

Finally  something  must  be  said  of  Carthage,  for  while  her 
palmy  days  as  well  as  her  decline,  were  closely  related  to 
Roman  history,  her  beginnings  were  inseparable  with  the 
mother-country. 

The  word  Carthage  signifies  New  City,  and  the  settlement 
was  so  named  in  all  probability  to  distinguish  it  from  Utica, 
founded  300  years  before.  850  b.  c.  has  been  considered  the 
latest  possible  date  for  the  founding  of  the  town,  while  many 
hold  that  it  was  settled  as  early  as  1000  b.  c.  It  matters  little 
which  is  accepted,  since  the  place  was  neither  strong  nor  in- 
fluential for  many  years  after  either  date.  Its  citizens  came 
originally  from  Tyre.  The  "  New  City  "  was  built  on  what 
is  now  the  Bay  of  Tunis,  a  little  to  the  north-west  of  the 
present  town  of  Tunis.  Nothing,  practically,  is  known  of  its 
early  history.  Kings  ruled  at  first,  but  were  later  abolished. 
Polybius,  a  Greek  historian,  stated  that  he  had  seen  a  treaty 
made  betwen  Rome  and  Carthage  as  early  as  509  b.  c,  by 
which  the  Carthaginians  bound  themselves  not  to  injure  any 
Latin  city  while  the  Romans  were  pledged  not  to  interfere 
with  Carthaginian  markets  in  the  western  Mediterranean. 
Because  of  its  fortunate  position  the  city  became  very  pros- 

»RawHnson :  Phoenicia,  7L 


392  THE  world's  progress. 

perous.  The  Greeks  tried  to  divert  some  of  its  trade  into 
their  own  channels,  and  later,  Rome  was  its  hated  rival  and 
continued  to  struggle  with  the  city  until  she  effected  its  down- 
fall. 

"  From  the  time  when  the  first  adventurers  from  the  Syrian 
coast  entered  the  sheltered  inlets  of  the  African  shore — a 
remote  period,  even  before  Saul  was  made  king  of  Israel  and 
while  Priam  sat  on  the  throne  of  Troy — down  to  the  seventh 
century  of  the  Christian  era,  when  the  Arabs  passed  over  it 
like  a  whirlwind,  this  land  has  been  the  battlefield  where  desti- 
nies of  nations  have  been  sealed,  and  where  heroes  and  war- 
riors have  sought  their  last  resting  place.  The  myths  that 
surround  its  earliest  development  and  shed  a  halo  of  romance 
over  the  career  of  its  primitive  races  are  somewhat  obscured 
by  the  sterner  facts  of  later  times — ^by  wars  innumerable,  wars 
of  invasion  and  local  disturbances,  succeeded  by  a  long  period 
of  piracy  and  power  insured,  and  finally  by  neglect,  abandon- 
ment, and  decay.  The  legend  of  Dido  still  hangs  over  Carth- 
age hill.  The  spirit  of  Haijnibal  haunts  the  fateful  Zanca,  and 
the  banks  of  the  Midjerda  hold  in  everlasting  memory  the 
story  of  Regulus  and  his  affrighted  array.  The  air  is  full  of 
myths  and  old-world  stories  which  faithfully  represent  the 
traditions  of  the  country  in  its  varying  fortunes ;  and  slight  as 
may  be  their  connection  with  events  in  prehistoric  times,  yet 
they  serve  as  foundations  for  a  historic  superstructure  of  never- 
failing  interest.  The  earliest  records  are  fragmentary,  but 
we  learn  that  the  library  of  the  Carthaginians,  written  in 
Phoenician  characters,  was  presented  by  the  Romans,  after 
the  fall  of  Carthage,  to  one  of  the  kings  of  Numidia;  and 
that  Sallust,  as  pro-consul  of  that  province  in  the  time  of 
Julius  Caesar,  borrowed  largely  from  it  while  writing  his  his- 
tory of  the  Jugarthine  war.  .  .  .  There  is  little  doubt, 
however,  that  most  of  the  earliest  records  passed  to  Alexandria, 
which  became  the  rival  of  Athens  as  a  seat  of  learning.  With 
the  burning  of  its  library  by  the  fanatical  Arabs  in  the  seventh 
century  many  a  link  betwen  the  old  world  and  the  new  was 
severed,  and  reliable  information  concerning  the  laws  and 
traditions,  and  the  manners  and  customs  of  a  people,  who  were 
the  fathers  of  navigation  and  the  founders  of  commerce,  was 
swept  away."* 

•  Graham :  Roman  Africa,  preface. 


SOCIAL    UFE   IN    PHOENICIA. 


393 


Phoenician  commerce  was  facilitated  by  the  establishment 
of  many  out-posts,  and  while  none  other  reached  such  size 
and  importance  as  Carthage,  several  controlled  routes  which 
were  almost  as  valuable.  No  modern  account  of  that  vast 
commerce  approaches  the  one  written  long  ago  by  the  prophet 
Ezekiel,  when  Tyre  was,  or  had  just  been,  at  the  zenith  of  her 
power. 

"  O  thou  that  dwellest  at  the  entry  of  the  sea,  which  art 
the  merchant  of  the  people  unto  many  isles,  O  Tyre,  thou  hast 
said :     *  I  am  of  perfect  beauty.' 

"  Thy  borders  are  in  the  midst  of  the  seas,  thy  builders 
have  perfected  thy  beauty.  They  have  made  all  thy  ship 
boards  of  fir  trees  of  Senir:  they  have  taken  cedars  from 
Lebanon  to  make  masts  for  thee.  Of  the  oaks  of  Bashan 
have  they  made  thine  oars ;  the  company  of  the  Ashurites  have 
made  thy  benches  of  ivory,  brought  out  of  the  isles  of  Chittim. 
Fine  linen  with  broidered  work  from  Egypt  was  that  which 
thou  spreadest  forth  to  be  thy  sail ;  blue  and  purple  from  the 
isles  of  Elishah  was  that  which  covered  thee. 

"  The  inhabitants  of  Sidon  and  Arvad  were  thy  mariners : 
thy  wise  men,  O  Tyre,  that  were  in  thee,  were  thy  pilots. 

"  The  ancients  of  Gabal  and  the  wise  men  thereof  were  in 
thee  thy  calkers:  all  the  ships  of  the  sea  with  their  mariners 
were  in  thee  lo  occupy  thy  merchandise.  They  of  Persia  and 
of  Lud  and  of  Phut  were  in  thine  army,  thy  men  of  war :  they 
hanged  the  shield  and  helmet  in  thee ;  they  set  forth  thy  come- 
liness.    .     .     . 

"  Tarshish  was  thy  merchant  by  reason  of  all  kinds  of 
riches;  with  silver,  iron,  tin  and  lead,  they  traded  in  thy  fairs. 

"Javan,  Tubal,  and  Meshech,  they  were  thy  merchants: 
they  traded  the  persons  of  men  and  vessels  of  brass  in  thy 
market.  They  of  the  house  of  Togarmah  traded  in  thy  fairs 
with  horses  and  horsemen  and  mules.  The  men  of  Dedan 
were  thy  merchants ;  many  isles  were  the  merchandise  of  thine 
hand:  they  brought  thee  for  a  present  horns  of  ivory  and 
ebony.  Syria  was  thy  merchant  by  reason  of  the  multitude 
of  the  wares  of  thy  making:  they  occupied  in  thy  fairs  with 
emeralds,  purple,  and  broidered  work,  and  fine  linen,  and 
coral,  and  agate. 

"  Judah,  and  the  land  of  Israel,  they  were  thy  merchants: 


T— 27 


394  THi?  w  grind's  progress. 

they  traded  in  thy  market  wheat  of  Minnith,  and  Pannag, 
and  honey,  and  oil,  and  balm.  Damascus  was  thy  merchant 
in  the  multitude  of  the  wares  of  thy  making,  for  the  multitude 
of  all  riches;  in  the  wine  of  Helbon,  and  white  wool.  Dan 
also  and  Javan  going  to  and  fro  occupied  in  thy  fairs ;  bright 
iron,  cassia,  and  calamus,  were  in  thy  market.  Dedan  was 
thy  merchant  in  precious  cloths  for  chariots.  Arabia,  and 
all  the  princes  of  Kedar,  they  occupied  with  thee  in  lambs,  and 
rams,  and  goats :  in  these  were  they  thy  merchants.  The  mer- 
chants of  Sheba  and  Raamah  .  .  .  occupied  in  thy  fairs 
with  chief  of  all  spices,  and  with  all  precious  stones,  and  gold. 

"  Haran,  and  Canneh,  and  Eden,  the  merchants  of  Sheba, 
Asshur,  and  Chilmad,  were  thy  merchants.  These  were  thy 
merchants  in  all  sorts  of  things,  in  blue  clothes,  and  broidered 
work,  and  in  chests  of  rich  apparel,  bound  with  cords,  and 
made  of  cedar,  among  thy  merchandise.  The  ships  of  Tar- 
shish  did  sing  of  thee  in  thy  market :  and  thou  wast  made  very 
glorious  in  the  midst  of  the  seas.     .     .     . 

"  When  thy  wares  went  forth  out  of  the  seas,  thou  filledst 
many  people ;  thou  didst  enrich  the  kings  of  the  earth  with  the 
multitude  of  thy  riches  and  of  thy  merchandise." ' 

The  produce  of  the  ancient  world  passed  through  routes 
controlled  by  Phoenicia,  and  she  acted  as  middleman  in  its 
distribution.  Commerce  was  of  two  kinds,  overland,  and  by 
sea.  Traffic  by  water  greatly  exceeded  that  by  land,  yet  both 
were  necessary  and  were  mutually  dependent  upon  one  an- 
other. 

The  products  of  interior  Asia  were  brought,  then  as  now, 
by  caravans.  Even  today  it  is  possible  to  see  trains  of  cara- 
vans similar  to  those  in  the  service  of  ancient  Tyre,  laden  with 
costly  wares,  crossing  the  desert.  Not  only  were  spices  and 
wares  of  Western  Asia  taken  to  Phoenician  sea-ports  for  dis- 
tribution, but  Mesopotamia  was  supplied  with  articles  from 
Europe  and  Africa  by  the  same  overland  travel. 

"  Imagine  the  arrival  of  a  Tyrian  caravan  at  Babylon.  The 
travellers  have  been  on  the  march  for  three  or  four  months. 
.  .  .  They  have  arrived  weary,  dusty,  travel-stained. 
Their  tents  are  pitched  outside  the  town,  not  far  from  th^ 
banks  of  the  river,  or  of  a  water-course  derived  from  it,  un»ler 

"Ezekiel,  27. 


SOCIAL    LIFE   IN    PHOENICIA.  395 

the  pleasant  shadow  of  a  grove  of  palms,  near  the  northern 
gate  of  the  great  city.  The  tall  necks  of  their  camels  are  seen 
from  a  distance  by  the  keen-eyed  watchers  of  the  gate-towers, 
and  reported  by  them  to  the  civic  authorities,  whence  the  secret 
soon  oozes  out  and  creates  a  bustle  in  the  town.  All  are 
anxious  to  obtain  some  object  of  their  desire  from  the  long 
expected  traders;  but  especially  anxious  are  the  great  store- 
keepers and  shopkeepers,  who  look  to  the  occasion  for  the  re- 
plenishing of  their  stock-in-trade  for  the  next  six  months, 
or,  it  may  be,  even  for  the  next  year.  But  the  weary  travel- 
lers must  have  a  night's  rest  ere  they  can  be  ready  to  open  their 
market,  must  unload  their  camels  and  their  mules,  dispose 
their  bales  of  goods  as  seems  most  convenient,  and  prepare 
themselves  for  the  fatigues  of  commercial  dealing  by  a  light 
supper  and  a  sound  sleep  ensuing  thereupon.  How  glad  are 
the  camels  to  have  the  loads  removed  from  their  galled  backs, 
to  repose  their  weary  limbs  upon  the  green  grass  of  the  yellow 
sand,  and  to  lay  their  tired  necks  along  the  ground!  Not  a 
moan  is  heard,  scarcely  a  grunt,  unless  it  be  one  of  satisfaction. 
The  mules,  and  the  camels,  and  the  horses  of  the  wealthier 
sort,  enjoy  themselves  equally.  We  hear  the  tinkling  of  their 
bells,  as  they  shake  themselves,  freed  from  all  their  trappings 
but  the  head  stall.  Some  are  picketed  about  where  the  turf 
is  richest,  others  contentedly  munch  the  barley  that  has  been 
placed  before  them  in  portable  mangers,  to  reward  them  for 
the  toils  that  they  have  gone  through.  Many  prefer  sleep- 
ing to  eating,  and,  leaving  their  food  untouched,  stretch  them- 
selves upon  the  sward.  Night  falls— the  stars  come  out— the 
traders  sleep  in  their  tents,  with  a  stone  or  a  bale  of  goods 
for  their  pillow — a  profound  hush  sinks  upon  the  camp,  except 
for  the  occasional  squeal  of  a  skittish  pair  of  mules,  which 
have  exchanged  bites  under  cover  of  the  darkness. 

"The  camp,  however,  wakes  up  with  the  first  gleam  of 
dawn  in  the  eastern  sky.  Each  man  busily  sets  about  his 
proper  work.  IMules  and  horses  are  groomed  and  are 
arranged  in  rows,  with  their  mangers  in  front,  and  their  pack- 
saddles  and  trappings  near  at  hand.  Bales  of  goods  are 
opened,  and  a  display  made  of  a  portion  of  their  contents. 
Meantime,  the  town  gates  have  been  unclosed,  and  in  holiday 
apparel  a' gay  crowd  streams  forth  from  them.     Foremost 


396  THE  worIwD's  progress. 

come  the  loafers,  hoping  to  make  an  honest  penny  by  *  lending 
a  hand,'  or  to  make  a  dishonest  one  by  filching  some  unguarded 
article.  Then  follow  the  ordinary  customers  and  the  petty 
traders  whose  arrangements  have  not  been  made  beforehand. 
The  last  to  appear  are  the  agents  of  the  great  merchants,  whose 
correspondents  at  Tyre  have  made  them  consignments  of 
goods  and  sent  the  goods  by  the  caravan  to  their  destination; 
these  clamor  for  invoices  and  bills  of  lading.  But  the  noisiest 
and  most  pressing  are  the  petty  traders  and  the  mere  chance  cus- 
tomers, who  have  a  special  need  to  supply,  or  covet  a  good  bar- 
gain. With  them  what  a  chaffering  there  is !  What  a  scream- 
ing and  apparent  quarrelling !  One  buyer  wants  a  purple  robe 
for  half  its  value,  another  a  Damascene  blade  for  next  to  noth- 
ing, a  third,  a  Greek  statuette  for  half  a  shekel  of  silver.  The 
seller  asks  at  least  four  times  the  sum  that  he  intends  to  take ; 
the  buyer  exclaims,  swears  perhaps  by  the  beard  of  his  grand- 
father that  he  will  not  give  a  farthing  more  than  he  has  offered ; 
then  relents,  and  doubtless  doubles  his  bid;  the  seller  comes 
down  a  little,  but  they  are  still  *  miles  apart,'  so  to  speak ;  it 
takes  an  hour  of  talking,  swearing,  screaming,  raving,  before 
the  juste  milieu  is  hit  off,  an  agreement  come  to,  and  buyer 
and  seller  alike  made  happy  by  a  conviction  on  the  part  of 
each  that  he  has  over-reached  the  other."  * 

The  companion  picture  to  the  caravan  would  be  the 
merchant  vessel  on  the  seas,  together  with  the  eager  anticipa- 
tion that  attended  its  arrival  in  port.  The  earliest  portrayal 
of  Phoenician  boats  show  them  to  have  been  provided  with 
oars  and  sails.  From  small  crafts,  partially  cabined,  built 
of  unseasoned  timber  and  poorly  caulked,  were  gradually 
evolved  the  stately  biremes,  perfect  in  construction  and  equip- 
ment. The  testimony  of  an  eye-witness  is  vastly  preferable 
to  descriptions  of  moderns,  however  scholarly.  The  follow- 
ing description  of  Xenophon,  a  Greek  general  who  often  saw 
Phoenician  vessels,  contains  valuable  information  regarding 
the  degree  of  skill  reached  by  these  sea-farers  in  the  equipment 
of  their  ships: 

"  I  think  that  the  best  and  most  perfect  arrangement  of 
things  which  I  ever  saw  was  when  I  went  to  look  at  the  great 
Phoenician  sailing  vessel :  for  I  saw  the  largest  amount  of  naval 

<  Rawlinson :  Phoenicia,  157,  ff. 


SOCIAL    We%   IN    PHOENICIA.  397 

tackling  separately  disposed  in  the  smallest  stowage  possible. 
For  a  ship,  as  you  well  know,  is  brought  to  anchor,  and  again 
got  under  way,  by  a  vast  number  of  wooden  implements,  and 
of  ropes,  and  sails  the  sea  by  means  of  a  quantity  of  rigging, 
and  is  armed  with  a  number  of  contrivances  against  hostile 
vessels,  and  carries  about  with  it  a  large  supply  of  weapons 
for  the  crew,  and,  besides,  has  all  the  utensils  that  a  man  keeps 
in  his  dwelling-house,  for  each  of  the  messes.  In  addition,  it 
is  loaded  with  a  quantity  of  merchandise,  which  the  owner 
carries  with  him  for  his  own  profit.  Now  all  the  things  which 
I  have  mentioned  lay  in  a  space  not  much  bigger  than  a  room 
that  would  conveniently  hold  ten  beds.  And  I  remarked  that 
they  severally  lay  in  such  a  way  that  they  did  not  obstruct  one 
another,  and  did  not  require  any  one  to  look  for  them,  and 
yet  they  were  neither  placed  at  random,  nor  entangled  one 
with  another,  so  as  to  consume  time  when  they  were  suddenly 
wanted  for  use.  Also  I  found  the  captain's  assistant,  who  is 
called  the  *  look-out-man,'  so  well  acquainted  with  the  position 
of  all  the  articles,  and  with  the  number  of  them,  that  even 
when  at  a  distance  he  would  tell  where  everything  lay,  and 
how  many  there  were  of  each  sort.  Moreover,  I  saw  this 
man,  in  his  leisure  moments,  examining  and  testing  everything 
that  a  vessel  needs  when  at  sea ;  so,  as  I  was  surprised,  I  asked 
him  what  he  was  about,  whereupon  he  replied,  *  Stranger,  I 
am  looking  to  see,  in  case  anything  should  happen,  how  every- 
thing is  arranged  in  the  ship,  and  whether  anything  is  want- 
ing or  is  inconveniently  situated;  for  when  a  storm  arises 
at  sea,  it  is  not  possible  either  to  look  for  what  is  wanting,  or  to 
put  to  rights  what  is  arranged  awkwardly.' 

One  mast  and  one  sail  seem  to  have  been  commonly  used. 
The  biremes  and  triremes  were  so-called  because  of  their  two 
or  three  banks  of  oars.  The  oarsmen  sat  in  the  hold,  their 
oars  passing  through  the  vessel's  side. 

Phoenician  traffic  was  always  most  extensive  by  sea. 
Products  of  Egypt,  Greece,  Cyprus,  Carthage,  Spain,  Britain, 
besides  those  of  countless  islands,  were  transported  constantly 
by  water. 

eXenophon:  Aeconom.,  VIII.,  11 


39^  THE  wori^d's  progress. 

The  Approach  of  a  Caravan. 

"  When  spring-time  flushes  the  desert  grass, 
Our  kafilas  wind  through  the  Khyber  Pass. 
Lean  are  the  camels,  but  fat  the  frails, 
Light  are  the  purses  but  heavy  the  bales, 
As  the  snow-bound  trade  of  the  North  comes  down 
To  the  market-square  of  Peshawur  town. 

In  a  turquoise    twilight,  crisp  and  chill, 

A  kafila  camped  at  the  foot  of  the  hill. 

Then  blue  smoke-haze  of  the  cooking  rose. 

And  tent-peg  answered  to  hammer-nose. 

And  the  picketed  ponies  shag  and  wild. 

Strained  at  their  ropes  as  the  feed  was  piled ; 

And  the  bubbling  camels  beside  the  load 

Sprawled  for  a  furlong  adown  the  road; 

And  Persian  pussy-cats,  brought  for  sale. 

Spat  at  the  dogs  from  the  camel-bale; 

And  the  tribesmen  bellowed  to  hasten  the  food; 

And  the  camp-fires  twinkled  by  Fort  Junrood; 

And  there  fled  on  the  wings  of  the  gathering  dusk 

A  savour  of  camels  and  carpets  and  musk, 

A  murmur  of  voices,  a  reek  of  smoke. 

To  tell  us  the  trade  of  the  Khyber  woke." 

— Kipling:  Ballad  of  the  King's  J<est. 


SOCIAI,    UFE   IN    PHOENICIA.  399 

CHAPTER   IV. 

Occupations  and  Industries. 

Of  first  concern  among  the  industries  of  Phoenicia  were 
her  maritime  activities.  While  many  Phoenician  voyages  led 
from  island  to  island,  and  from  one  port  to  another  almost 
in  sight,  nevertheless  the  sailors  frequently  made  trips  that 
necessitated  their  steering  away  from  the  shore,  and  ventur- 
ing out  into  the  open  sea.  They  probably  made  charts  of  the 
sea  and  acquired  some  elementary  knowledge  of  nautical 
affairs.  Their  greatest  undertaking  was  the  circumnaviga- 
tion of  Africa.  This  was  attempted  when  Neccho  was 
pharaoh  of  Egypt  and  held  Western  Asia  in  temporary  tribute. 
Hoping  to  find  a  water  communication  between  the  Red  Sea 
and  the  Mediterranean,  he  engaged  Phoenician  seamen  to  sail 
around  Africa.  Three  years  were  consumed  in  the  journey, 
since  they  had  to  land  each  year  and  grow  food  sufficient  for 
the  continuance  of  their  voyage.  When  they  returned,  through 
the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  they  reported  that  the  sun  had  been 
upon  their  right  hand  throughout  the  trip,  which,  Herodotus 
said :  "  others  may  perhaps  believe,  though  I  certainly  do  not." 
Little  attention  was  given  the  matter  until  scholars  began  to 
investigate  the  possibility  of  the  earth's  rotundity,  whereupon 
the  information  so  long  cast  aside  was  once  more  noted. 

For  the  most  part  it  is  probably  true  that  the  art  of  navi- 
gation was  but  crudely  developed,  compared  with  the  progress 
reached  later  by  the  Greeks.  Yet  the  Greeks  themselves  were 
indebted  to  some  extent  to  the  earliest  seamen  of  unquestioned 
courage  and  venturesome  spirit. 

Of  most  vital  importance  were  Phoenicia's  activities  in 
commerce  and  trade,  to  quite  a  degree  dependent  upon  her  con- 
trol of  the  sea. 

"  Gather  now  an  idea  of  Phoenicia  in  the  days  of  her  great- 
est power.  Station  yourself  upon  the  rocky  island  of  Tyre, 
and  turn  your  eyes  toward  the  west.  Were  your  vision  power- 
ful enough,  you  might  see  the  towers  of  Phoenician  settle- 
ments dotting  the  Grecian  seas  and  lining  the  coast  of  Africa. 
Meeting  for  a  moment  at  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar,  again  the 
two  lines  would  diverge  to  the  north  and  to  the  south,  encom- 


400  THE  world's  progress. 

passing  the  known  seas.  Turn  now  to  the  east,  and  you  be- 
hold the  caravans  extending  in  long  dark  lines  to  the  north 
and  to  the  south.  At  the  extremities  of  the  Lebanon  moun- 
tains, crossing  the  ridge,  the  lines  divide  and  subdivide,  like 
streams  toward  their  sources,  until  they  penetrate  and  per- 
meate the  jungles  of  India  and  the  valleys  of  the  Himalayas. 
Such  was  Phoenicia  in  her  palmy  days,  garnering  and  distribut- 
ing the  produce  and  riches  of  the  world."  * 

Farming  was  also  important.  Products  raised  within 
Phoenicia  were  used  chiefly  for  home  consumption.  Orchards, 
gardens,  and  grain-fields  yielded  abundant  returns  and  pro- 
vided the  food  supply  of  the  population,  save  for  fish,  and 
such  articles  of  luxury  as  were  demanded  by  the  citizens  of  the 
wealthy  ports.  The  country  was  too  small  and  its  arable 
acreage  too  limited  to  admit  of  extensive  agricultural  pursuits. 

While  the  manufactories  of  the  country  were  less  im- 
portant, they  had  an  important  place.  Phoenicia  was  widely 
famed  for  the  production  of  four  distinct  articles,  in  the  mak- 
ing of  which  her  people  excelled.  First  of  these  was  a  purple 
dye.  Other  nations  attempted  to  provide  the  same  commodity 
but  never  equalled  the  perfection  of  the  Tyrian  dye.  Large 
quantities  of  shell-fish  yielding  the  precious  fluid  from  which 
it  was  made,  were  found  off  the  Tyrian  coast.  They  were  of 
two  species.  A  little  sac  containing  a  creamy  secretion  was 
opened  in  one,  and  the  fluid  carefully  extracted.  The  other 
was  ground  up,  shell  and  all.  Both  were  necessary  to  pro- 
duce the  beautiful  tints  peculiar  to  Phoenician  cloths. 

Their  special  processes  of  dyeing,  exposing  the  materials 
to  the  different  degrees  of  light  while  drying,  as  well  as  the 
chemical  employed  to  make  the  colors  fast,  were  secrets  well 
guarded,  so  that  no  imitation  could  deceive  when  compared  to 
the  splendid  purples  of  Tyre.  Since  dress  fabrics  and  material 
for  covering  furniture  were  most  desired  in  rich  and  costly 
hues,  raw  wool  was  extensively  imported  and  woven  to  meet 
the  ever  increasing  demand.  Dress  stuffs  from  Phoenicia  were 
prized  as  booty  or  as  tribute  by  the  several  countries  which 
at  different  periods  exacted  homage  from  Tyre  and  vSidon. 

Sidon  was  /amous  for  her  glassware.  Pliny  the  Elder, 
a  Roman  who  wrote  on  History  and  Science  during  the  first 

>  Bouphton :  History  of  Ancient  Peoples. 


SOCIAI,    LIFE   IN    PHOENICIA.  4OI 

century  of  the  Christian  era,  gave  the  tradition  current  in 
his  day  concerning  the  so-called  "  discover>-  of  glass." 

"  It  is  said  that  some  Phoenician  merchants,  having  landed 
on  the  shores  of  the  river  Belus,  were  preparing  their  meal, 
and  not  finding  suitable  stones  for  raising  their  saucepans, 
they  used  lumps  of  natrum  contained  in  their  cargo  for  the 
purpose.  When  the  natrum  was  exposed  to  the  action  of  the 
fire,  it  melted  into  the  sand  lying  on  the  banks  of  the  river, 
and  they  saw  transparent  streams  of  some  unknown  liquicl 
trickling  over  the  ground ;  this  was  the  origin  of  glass."  '  At 
least  the  tale  is  reasonable,  and  might  have  been  the  experience 
of  people  at  different  times.  At  all  events,  the  art  becoming 
known  to  the  Phoenicians,  they  attained  notable  skill  in  imi- 
tating precious  stones  in  colored  glass.  It  was  their  experience 
that  trinkets,  such  as  beads,  were  in  great  favor  among  half- 
civilized  tribes  with  whom  they  traded,  and  the  satisfaction 
was  mutual  when  a  few  strings  of  glass  beads  had  been  ex- 
changed for  skins,  ivory  and  even  gold.  It  is  now  believed 
that  some  of  the  rare  glass-ware,  treasured  as  Grecian  in 
museums  today,  was  really  produced  in  Sidon. 

Articles  fashioned  of  gold,  silver  and  other  metals  were 
especially  attractive.  Such  bits  of  jewelry  as  have  been  dis- 
covered— necklaces,  bracelets,  and  rings,  give  evidence  of  a 
high  degree  of  workmanship.  Bowls,  goblets,  and  dishes  were 
elaborately  wrought  from  metals,  and  while  the  decorative 
designs  upon  them  were  often  borrowed  from  the  Greeks  or  the 
Egyptians,  the  original  was  frequently  improved  upon.  The 
following  lines  from  the  Iliad  show  how  bits  of  Phoenician 
work  were  treasured  among  the  Hellenes : 

"  And  then  the  son  of  Peleus  placed  in  sight 
Prizes  of  swiftness, — a.  wrought  silver  cup 
That  held  six  measures,  and  in  beauty  far 
Excelled  all  others  known;  the  cunning  hands 
Of  the  Sidonian  artisans  have  given 
Its  graceful  shape,  and  over  the  dark  sea 
Men  of  Phoenicia  brought  it,  with  their  wares, 
To  the  Greek  harbors ;  Achilles  now 
Brought  it  before  the  assembly  as  a  prize, 
For  which,  in  honor  of  the  friend  he  loved, 
The  swiftest  runners  of  the  host  should  strive." 


402  THE  WORIvD'S  progress. 

Hebrew  chroniclers  have  described  the  decoration  of  Solo- 
mon's temple — all  wrought  by  Phoenician  skill : 

"  And  King  Solomon  sent  and  fetched  Hiram  out  of  Tyre. 
He  was  a  widow's  son,  .  .  .  and  his  father  was  a  man 
of  Tyre,  a  worker  in  brass:  and  he  was  filled  with  wisdom 
and  understanding,  and  cunning  to  work  all  works  in  brass. 
And  he  came  to  King  Solomon,  and  wrought  all  his  work. 

"  For  he  cast  two  pillars  of  brass,  of  eighteen  cubits  high 
apiece :  and  a  line  of  twelve  cubits  did  compass  either  of  them 
about.  And  he  made  two  capitals  of  molten  brass,  to  set 
upon  the  tops  of  the  pillars:  the  height  of  the  one  capital  was 
five  cubits,  and  the  height  of  the  other  capital  was  five  cubits. 
And  nets  of  checker  work,  and  wreaths  of  chain  work,  for 
the  capitals  which  were  upon  the  top  of  the  pillars,  seven  for 
one  capital  and  seven  for  the  other  capital.  And  he  made  the 
pillars,  and  two  rows  round  about  upon  the  one  network,  to 
cover  the  capitals  that  were  upon  the  top,  with  pomegranates : 
and  so  did  he  for  the  other  capital.  And  the  capitals  that  were 
upon  the  top  of  the  pillars  were  of  lily  work  in  the  porch,  four 
cubits.  .  .  .  And  he  set  up  the  pillars  in  the  porch  of 
the  temple:  and  he  set  up  the  right  pillar  and  called  the  name 
thereof  Jachin:  and  he  sat  up  the  left  pillar  and  called  the 
name  thereof  Boaz.  And  upon  the  top  of  the  pillars  was  lily 
work :  so  was  the  work  of  the  pillars  finished. 

"  And  he  made  a  molten  sea,  ten  cubits  from  one  brim  to 
the  other:  it  was  round  all  about,  and  its  height  was  five 
cubits :  and  a  line  of  thirty  cubits  did  compass  it  round  about. 
And  under  the  brim  of  it  round  about  there  were  knobs  com- 
passing it.  .  .  .  It  stood  upon  twelve  oxen,  three  look- 
ing toward  the  north,  and  three  looking  toward  west,  and 
three  looking  toward  the  south,  and  three  looking  toward  the 
east:  and  the  sea  was  set  above  them,  and  all  their  hinder 
parts  were  inward.  And  it  was  an  hand  breadth  thick,  and  the 
brim  thereof  was  wrought  like  the  brim  of  a  cup,  with  flowers 
of  lilies :  it  contained  two  thousand  baths.  .  .  .  So  Hiram 
made  an  end  of  doing  all  the  work  that  he  made  King  Solomon 
for  the  house  of  the  Lord." ' 

The  Phoenicians  never  developed  an  imposing  architecture. 
Timber  was  abundant  on  the  mountain  slopes,  and  was  the 

» I.  Kings,  7. 


SOCIAL    LIFE   IN    PHOENICIA.  403 

principal  building  material.  The  great  lack  of  architectural 
ruins  in  the  country  today  may  be  largely  accounted  for  by 
its  perishability.  Stone  was  also  available,  and  appears  to 
have  been  used  chiefly  for  foundations,  which  were  laid  deep 
and  skillfully  constructed.  City  walls  were  built  of  stone, 
and  a  few  remnants  of  these  may  yet  be  found.  Gigantic 
stones  of  prodigious  size  were  piled  one  upon  another  and  often 
held  in  place  by  their  own  tremendous  weight.  In  places 
where  the  solid  blocks  were  joined  together,  they  were  united 
so  evenly  that  the  blade  of  a  knife  may  not  now  be  placed 
in  the  seam. 

Tyre  and  Sidon  were  both  beautiful  cities,  as  abundant 
evidence  goes  to  testify.  Carthage  with  her  great  structures 
of  stone,  became  a  quarry  for  Italy,  but  the  Phoenicians  were 
imitators  and  never  developed  a  distinctive  style  of  building. 

Their  sculpture  survives  only  in  tombs.  A  few  of  these 
have  been  recovered.  Some  of  the  figures  adorning  the  in- 
teriors of  tombs  are  said  to  possess  richness  and  beauty. 
Their  artists  made  use  of  huge  blocks,  and  for  this  reason 
their  carving  was  in  low  relief,  or  gave  such  appearance.  The 
Greeks,  on  the  other  hand,  found  gigantic  blocks  unwieldy, 
and  took  smaller  stones  for  their  embellishment.  Consequently 
the  grace  and  delicacy  of  Greek  sculpture  was  not  reached 
in  Phoenicia. 

"  It  seems  strange  that  these  Canaanites  or  Phoenicians, 
the  scorn  of  Israel,  and  the  people  against  whom  Joshua  bent 
all  his  powers,  should  have  enjoyed  such  an  uncheckered  career, 
making  themselves  sole  navigators  of  every  sea,  and  finally 
founding  a  city  which  stod  unrivalled  for  more  than  700  years. 
Through  their  hands  .  .  .  passed  grain,  ivory,  and  skins 
from  Libya;  slaves  from  the  Soudan,  purple  and  cedar  from 
Tyre,  frankincense  from  Arabia,  copper  from  Cyprus,  iron 
from  Elba,  tin  from  Cornwall,  wine  from  Greece,  silver  from 
Spain,  and  gold  and  precious  stones  from  Malabar.  As  a 
nation  of  traders  and  navigators  they  established  themselves 
on  the  coast,  and  wherever  they  settled,  depots  and  factories 
of  various  kinds  were  erected.  We  do  not  find  them  in  the 
interior  of  a  country.  Neither  do  we  hear  of  alliances  with 
the  people  with  whom  they  came  in  contact,  nor  of  their  im- 
pressing barbarian  tribes  with  any  notions  of  the  advantages 


404  THE  world's  progress. 

of  civilization.  In  the  field  of  intellectual  acquirements  the 
Carthaginian,  as  the  descendant  of  the  Phoenician,  has  no 
place,  and  his  skill  in  the  gentler  arts  of  life  has  no  recognition. 
We  find  no  native  architecture,  nor  do  v^e  hear  of  any  in- 
dustrial art  worth  recording.  Carthage,  it  is  true,  became 
the  metropolis  of  their  widespread  kingdom,  and  one  of  the 
wealthiest  cities  of  the  world.  .  .  .  Temples  and  stately 
edifices  adorned  its  streets,  and  the  remains  of  great  con- 
structional works  still  attest  the  solid  grandeur  of  the  city. 
But  the  architecture  was  the  work  of  Greek,  not  of  Punic, 
artists ;  and  the  few  sculptures  of  note,  which  may  be  assigned 
to  a  period  anterior  to  the  last  Punic  war,  have  nothing  in 
common  with  the  rude  carvings  which  bear  the  impress  of 
Carthaginian  origin.  On  the  other  hand  the  art  of  naviga- 
tion, the  science  of  agriculture,  the  principles  of  trading,  and 
a  system  of  water  supply  combined  with  the  construction  of 
gigantic  cisterns,  which  may  still  be  seen  at  Carthage,  and  in 
the  outskirts  of  many  towns  in  North  Africa,  became  Rome's 
heritage  from  Phoenicia." ' 

Literature  and  Learning. 

Among  the  bequests  of  Phoenicia  to  mankind,  first  will 
always  stand  the  giving  of  an  alphabet  to  the  world.  It  is 
true  that  other  nations  possessed  a  written  language,  but  their 
symbols  were  generally  so  complicated  and  so  numerous  that 
they  could  hardly  have  become  of  general  service.  It  was 
earlier  assumed  that  the  Phoenicians  invented  the  alphabet 
which  they  spread  among  the  nations  around  them,  but  now 
it  is  believed  that  they  simply  shortened  and  simplified  symbols 
already  in  existence.  Their  alphabet  was  widely  adopted,  to 
be  sure,  not  because  it  was  most  convenient,  but  because  it 
was  the  only  one  known  to  many  nations,  who  never  came  in 
direct  contact  with  dwellers  on  the  Nile  or  Mesopotamians. 

In  Phoenicia's  palmy  days  literature  and  learning  were 
neglected — at  least  so  far  as  can  now  be  ascertained.  It  is  not 
unlikely  that  scholars  lived  sometimes  in  the  larger  cities, 
and  schools  were  probably  maintained  to  some  extent,  but  at 
all  events,  no  remains  of  a  Phoenician  literature  has  come  down 
to  us,  and  it  has  been  commonly  surmised  that  no  extensive 

«  Graham :  Roman  Africa,  1,  2. 


SOCIAL    LIFE    IN    PHOENICIA.  405 

literature  ever  existed.  The  nation  was  bent  upon  its  com- 
mercial life,  and  only  such  knowledge  as  would  be  essential 
to  traders  was  regarded  as  necessary.  In  later  times,  in  the 
last  century  before  Christ  and  in  the  first  century  of  the  new 
era,  literary  activity  was  more  marked.  We  are  told  that  there 
was  a  school  of  philosophy  at  Sidon,  and  the  city  became  a 
literary  center,  but  this  had  little  to  do  with  the  period  of 
Phoenician  ascendency  which  practically  ended  with  Greek 
dominance. 

Religion. 

Somewhat  more  is  known  of  the  religion  of  Phoenicia,  but 
here  again  we  are  not  able  to  trace  its  development  in  any 
complete  sense,  and  most  that  has  been  recorded  concerning 
it  was  written  by  foreigners  whose  attitude  was  uniformly 
hostile. 

It  is  now  supposed  by  some  scholars  that  the  Phoenician 
religion  was  at  first  monotheistic,  and  that  later  the  worship 
of  many  gods  was  common.  The  third  stage  in  its  progress 
would  be  the  greater  portion  of  the  period  known  to  us,  when 
the  gods  of  other  peoples  were  allowed,  by  the  side  of  those 
native  to  the  country.  In  Carthaginian  tombs  images  of 
Egyptian  deities  have  been  found  side  by  side  with  those  of 
ancient  Tyre  and  Sidon.  In  the  beginning,  the  Phoenician 
worship  was  probably  one  manifestation  of  the  Sun-worship, 
common  to  Semitic  peoples.  The  religion  of  any  people  is  a 
matter  of  growth,  invariably  undergoing  change,  until  it  finally 
resembles  but  slightly  what  it  was  in  the  beginning.  Thus 
the  faith  of  Phoenicia  underwent  many  changes  during  her 
1500  years.  It  is  agreed  that  the  Phoenicians  worshipped 
curiously  shaped  stones  at  an  early  period,  believing  that  deities 
had  their  abode  within  them ;  plants  also  were  importuned, 
to  appease  the  spirit  that  dwelt  within  them  and  cause  each 
to  yield  food.  Finally  the  heavenly  bodies  became  objects  of 
worship,  the  sun  being  considered  most  important.  There 
must  always  be  something  appealing  in  the  adoration  felt  by 
primitive  minds  toward  the  sun.  Most  ancient  people  wor- 
shipped it  in  one  form  or  another,  and  the  planet  was  sur- 
rounded by  unfathomable  mystery  in  the  infancy  of  the  world. 

Baal  was  god  of  the  sun,  Astoreth,  goddess  of  the  moon. 


4o6  THE  world's  progress. 

Baal  symbolized  the  life-giving  power  of  the  sun  as  well  as  its 
destructive  forces. 

Maleck  or  Molock  was  the  god  of  fire.  He  was  a  god  of 
cruelty  and  thirsted  for  blood.  It  was  to  satisfy  some  of  his 
supposed  cravings  that  the  human  sacrifices  took  place.  The 
first-born  child,  pure  maidens,  favorite  sons,  were  fed  to  the 
flames  to  appease  his  wrath.  These  sacrifices  seem  strange  to 
us  today,  and  nations  of  antiquity,  immuned  to  cruelty  and 
bloodshed,  turned  from  these  Phoenician  customs  in  horror. 

An  annual  spring  festival  of  great  antiquity  was  celebrated. 
Probably  in  early  times  it  lacked  the  feature  of  the  human 
sacrifice  which  made  it  most  objectionable  later.  Great  forest 
trees  were  brought  into  the  temple  court  and  planted.  From 
their  branches  were  suspended  animals,  birds  and  all  else  in- 
tended for  the  sacrifice.  After  the  images  of  the  gods  were 
marched  around  these  trees,  all  was  set  on  fire  and  consumed 
in  a  mighty  conflagration.  To  make  the  celebration  more  im- 
pressive, human  sacrifices  were  added,  especially  before  some 
great  undertaking,  or  upon  the  occasion  of  some  national 
calamity. 

Astoreth  was  the  great  virgin  goddess.  In  the  beginning, 
she  was  worshipped  with  simple  rites. 

"Astoreth,  whom  the  Phoenicians  called 
Astarte,  queen  of  heaven,  with  crescent  horns ; 
To  whose  bright  image  nightly  by  the  moon 
Sidonian  virgins  paid  their  vows  and  songs." 

In  course  of  time  the  character  of  the  goddess  changed, 
and  she  was  worshipped  by  most  licentious  practices. 

In  addition  to  their  own  gods,  the  Phoenicians  readily 
incorporated  into  their  pantheon  deities  of  those  tribes  and 
nations  with  whom  they  opened  trade.  Some  years  after 
Phoenicia  ceased  to  be  a  power,  a  Carthaginian  general  made 
a  treaty  with  the  Emperor  of  Greece.  The  two  are  reported 
to  have  sworn  by  numerous  deities  that  they  would  preserve 
it.  "  They  swore  by  Zeus,  Hera,  and  Apollo,  by  the  tutelary 
deities  of  the  Carthaginians,  by  Hercules,  by  the  moon,  and 
the  earth,  by  rivers,  meadows,  and  waters,  by  the  gods  of  the 
allied  armies,  and  the  sun,  by  all  the  gods  who  ruled  over 
Carthage,  by  all  the  gods  who  ruled  over  Macedon  and  the 


SOCIAL    LIFE    IN    PHOENICIA.  4O7 

rest  of  Greece,  and  by  all  the  gods  of  those  who  were  present 
to  ratify  the  treaty." 

At  first  the  Phoenicians  worshipped  in  the  open  air,  with 
merely  an  altar  of  stone.  Later  they  built  elaborate  and  costly 
temples,  but  they  still  celebrated  certain  ceremonies  out  of 
doors,  in  groves  or  under  the  shade  of  trees. 

The  religion  of  the  Phoenicians  was  most  innocent  and 
attractive  in  its  earliest  stages.  As  it  developed,  with  its 
numerous  priesthood  performing  their  bloody  rites,  and  its 
necessary  sacrifices,  teaching  cruelty  and  blunting  the  sensi- 
bilities of  its  adherents,  it  became  very  repulsive.  Far  from 
inculcating  noble  ideals,  it  made  a  virtue  of  renouncing  dear 
ones  to  agony  and  death ;  and  a  people  who  from  infancy  grew 
accustomed  to  such  scenes  and  such  conceptions  could  never 
develop  finest  qualities  of  character.  Wherever  Phoenician 
vessels  landed  with  their  wares,  there  Phoenician  gods  and 
practices  went  also.  The  good  done  in  spreading  the  habits 
of  civilization  to  regions  remote  was  mitigated  by  the  harm 
done  in  spreading  this  abhorrent  faith. 

Several  Greek  myths  tell  of  maidens  being  sacrificed  to 
some  monster,  such,  for  example,  as  Theseus  and  The  Minotaur. 
These  are  believed  to  have  had  their  origin  in  rumors  of  Phoe- 
nician sacrifices.  The  stories  reached  the  shores  of  Greece 
in  various  forms  and  with  the  aid  of  Greek  imaginations  were 
woven  into  the  tales  as  we  know  them. 


SHELLS  OF  THE  SEA  SNAIL  FROM    WHICH   THE  PURPLE  DVE  WAS   MADE. 


408  TUZ  WORIJ)'S   PROGRESS. 

CHAPTER   V. 
The  Physical  Geography  oe  Palestine. 

It  is  essential  that  the  student  of  Hebrew  history  under- 
stand the  topography  of  Palestine,  wherein  the  nation  devel- 
oped. Names  of  rivers,  mountains,  cities,  in  this  historic  land 
grow  familiar  from  frequent  repetition  in  the  Bible,  but  where 
each  was  located,  and  what  was  its  position  relative  to  other 
oft-mentioned  spots,  are  queries  left  unsettled  by  the  average 
reader.  Still  more  necessary  is  a  general  idea  of  the  country 
as  a  whole,  because  the  very  formation  of  the  land  determined 
in  a  large  measure  the  destiny  of  those  who  dwelt  within  it. 

Palestine  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  base  of  the 
Lebanons,  on  the  east  by  the  Arabian  desert,  on  the  south  by 
the  Wilderness  of  Judah — an  extension  of  this  desert — ,  and 
on  the  west  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea  below  Mount  Carm.el, 
while  north  of  this  mighty  mountain  the  Phoenicians  held 
the  coast,  although  the  Hebrews  occupied  the  province  of 
Galilee,  east  of  the  Phcenician  shore. 

This  celebrated  land  is  scarcely  more  than  150  miles  in 
length,  and  approximates  100  miles  in  breadth,  yet  every 
known  variety  of  climate  may  be  found  within  its  confines. 
From  regions  lying  1300  feet  below  sea-level,  with  heat  of 
the  tropics,  mountains  rise  to  9000  feet  above  the  sea,  with 
Alpine  snows  and  cold. 

Palestine,  like  Greece  or  Switzerland,  falls  naturally  into 
many  small  divisions,  each  shut  off  in  a  measure  from  the 
rest.  This  explains  how  it  was  possible  for  the  Hebrews  to 
occupy  a  considerable  portion  of  the  land  while  the  Canaanites, 
earlier  inhabitants  of  the  country,  remained  undisturbed  in 
other  localities.  It  also  explains  the  fact  that  for  many  years 
some  of  the  Hebrews  dwelt  in  tents  and  clung  to  their  nomadic 
customs  while  no  great  distance  away  others  of  their  kinsmen 
cultivated  the  vine  and  tilled  the  soil. 

While  the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean  was  broken  by  sev- 
eral harbors  along  the  Phoenician  coast,  south  of  Mount 
Carmel  the  shore  reaches  in  a  nearly  straight  line  to  Egypt. 


THE   STORY   OE  THE   HEBREWS.  4O9 

No  havens  invite  ships  to  safety;  no  islands  dot  the  rocky 
shore.  To  the  Hebrew  the  sea  was  a  frontier  rather  than  a 
means  for  outside  communication.  So  inhospitable  was  this 
coast  that  invasions  of  Palestine  were  made  by  land  rather 
than  sea.  A  rocky  line  of  cliffs  varying  from  thirty  to  one 
hundred  feet  makes  landing  impossible  save  at  two  or  three 
artificially  constructed  modern  ports. 

Six  distinct  land  features  are  to  be  found  in  Palestine  and 
deeply  affected  the  people  who  dwelt  there  in  antiquity.  First 
of  these  is  .the  Coast  Plain,  varying  in  width  from  two  hun- 
dred yards  to  thirty  miles.  The  northern  portion  of  it  was 
known  as  the  Plain  of  Sharon;  the  southern  portion,  as  the 
Plain  of  Philistia.  The  word  Sharon  signifies  "  forest,"  and 
in  an  early  day  a  dense  wood  of  oaks  covered  the  region  and 
gave  it  this  name.  Only  in  the  north  has  the  forest  been 
perpetuated  to  our  day.  The  plain  was  formerly,  and  is  still, 
productive.  It  contains  gardens,  orchards,  and  grain  fields. 
Lacking  the  inspiring  beauty  of  the  high  tablelands,  it  pos- 
sesses a  quiet  charm  of  its  own.  Farther  south,  the  Plain  of 
Philistia  stretches  off  in  the  direction  of  Egypt. 

This  Coast  Plain,  falling  for  the  most  part  into  these  two 
smaller  plains,  has  been  a  continuation  of  the  great  highway 
between  Egypt  and  Syria,  and  a  famous  war-path.  For 
Egypt  particularly,  it  was  a  simple  matter  to  dispatch  troops 
along  the  shore,  to  strike  terror  to  less  inaccessible  inland 
districts.  Today  it  lies  in  peaceful  cultivation  or  in  wood- 
lands of  low  undergrowth. 

"  The  whole  Maritime  Plain  possesses  a  quiet  but  rich 
beauty.  If  the  contours  are  gentle  the  colors  are  strong  and 
varied.  Along  almost  the  whole  seaboard  runs  a  strip  of  links 
and  downs,  sometimes  of  pure  drifting  sand,  sometimes  of 
grass  and  sand  together.  Outside  this  border  of  broken  gold 
there  is  the  blue  sea,  with  its  fringe  of  foam.  Landward  the 
soil  is  a  chocolate  brown,  with  breaks  and  gullies,  now  bare 
to  their  dirty  white  shingle  and  stagnant  puddles,  and  now 
full  of  rich  green  reeds  and  rushes  that  tell  of  ample  water 
beneath.  Over  corn  and  moorland  a  million  flowers  are 
scattered — poppies,  pimpernels,  anemones,  the  convolvulus 
and  the  mallow,  the  narcissus  and  blue  iris — roses  of  Sharon 
and  lilies  of  the  valley.     Lizards  haunt  all  the  sunny  banks. 

1—28 


410  THE  world's   progress. 

The  shimmering  air  is  filled  with  bees  and  butterflies,  and  with 
the  twittering  of  small  birds,  hushed  now  and  then  as  the 
shadow  of  a  great  hawk  blots  the  haze.  The  soft  night  is 
sprinkled  thick  with  glittering  fireflies." ' 

Passing  the  sea  and  the  Coast  Plain,  the  Central  Range 
rises  high  and  extends  throughout  the  entire  length  of  Pales- 
tine, with  some  variations.  In  this  great  tableland  lay  the 
famous  kingdom  of  the  Hebrews — Judaea  and  Samaria. 
Judaea  lay  farther  to  the  south  and  was  separated  from  the 
Coast  Plain  by  the  Shephelah — a  series  of  low  foot-hills.  The 
Hebrews  built  their  western  cities  on  these  low  hills  rather 
than  along  the  shore.  In  fact  the  frequent  attacks  of  the 
Philistines  left  the  Coast  Plain  only  now  and  then  in  the 
hands  of  the  Hebrews. 

The  word  Shephelah  has  been  thought  to  signify  lowlands, 
and  may  have  been  applied  in  contrast  to  the  highlands  farther 
east.  Ranging  from  five  to  fifteen  miles  in  width,  this  ele- 
vated strip  was  the  scene  of  constant  warfare  between  the 
Hebrews  and  Philistines.  Numerous  valleys  led  across  it, 
Ajalon  being  perhaps  most  famous. 

"  The  prevailing  scenery  of  the  region  is  of  short,  steep 
hillsides  and  narrow  glens,  with  a  very  few  great  trees,  and 
thickly  covered  by  brushwood  and  oak-scrub — crags  and  scalps 
of  limestone  breaking  through,  and  a  rough  grey  torrent-bed 
at  the  bottom  of  each  glen.  .  .  .  Caves,  of  course,  abound 
— near  the  villages,  gaping  black  dens  for  men  and  cattle, 
but  up  the  unfrequented  glens  they  are  hidden  by  hanging 
bush,  behind  which  you  disturb  only  the  wild  pigeon.  Bees 
murmur  everywhere,  larks  are  singing;  and  although  in  the 
maze  of  hills  you  may  wander  for  hours  without  meeting  a 
man,  or  seeing  a  house,  you  are  seldom  out  of  sound  of  the 
human  voice,  shepherds  and  ploughmen  calling  to  their  cattle 
and  to  each  other  across  the  glens.  Higher  up  you  rise  to 
moorlands,  with  rich  grass  if  there  is  a  spring,  but  otherwise, 
heath,  thorns,  and  rough  herbs  that  scent  the  wind.  Bees 
abound  here,  too,  and  dragon-flies,  kites  and  crows;  some- 
times an  eagle  floats  over  the  cliffs  of  Judaea.  The  sun  beats 
strong,  but  you  see  and  feel  the  sea;  the  high  mountains  are 

1  George  Adam  Smith :  Historical  Geography  of  the  Holv  Land,  14S. 


THE    STORY   OF   THE    HEBREWS.  4II 

behind,  at  night  they  breathe  upon  these  ridges  gentle  breezes, 
and  the  dews  are  very  heavy. 

"  Altogether  it  is  a  rough,  happy  land,  with  its  glens  and 
moors,  its  mingled  brushwood  and  barley-fields;  frequently 
under  cultivation,  but  for  the  most  part  broken  and  thirsty, 
with  few  wells  and  many  hiding  places;  just  the  home  for 
strong  border-men,  like  Samson,  and  just  the  theatre  for  that 
guerilla  warfare,  varied  occasionally  by  pitched  battles,  which 
Israel  and  Philistia,  the  Maccabees  and  the  Syrians,  waged 
with  each  other." ' 

At  last  the  foot-hills  merge  into  lofty  mountains  and  series 
of  plateaus,  or  table-lands,  surrounded  by  high  peaks,  appear. 
Here  was  Judaea,  the  true  home  of  the  Hebrews.  Farther 
north,  and  rising  directly  from  the  Coast  Plain,  without  the 
intervening  foot-hills,  was  Samaria.  The  physical  outlines 
of  this  long,  narrow  range  determined  in  advance  that  it  would 
not  permanently  be  politically  united. 

Judaea  was  quite  secure  in  her  mountain  heights.  On  the 
east  her  mountains  descend  abruptly  to  the  lower  Jordan  and 
the  Dead  Sea;  on  the  south  lies  the  desert;  on  the  east  the 
low  foot-hills,  and  on  the  north  the  table-land  ends  in  ten 
miles  of  wild,  waste  land.  "  A  desolate,  fatiguing  extent  of 
rocky  platforms  and  ridges,  or  moorland  strewn  with  boulders, 
and  fields  of  shallow  soil  thickly  mixed  with  stone,  they  are 
a  true  border — more  fit  for  the  building  of  barriers  than  for 
the  cultivation  of  food." 

Some  parts  of  this  stony  plateau  were  fit  for  cultivation, 
but  for  the  most  part,  Judaea  was  a  pastoral  land — a  country 
of  shepherds  and  herdsmen.  Flocks  of  sheep  fed  on  the  moor- 
lands in  ancient  times,  as  they  do  today.  Water  has  always 
been  scanty  and  is  preserved  in  wells  and  cisterns  for  the  cattle 
during  months  of  drouth. 

Samaria  possesses  softer  outlines  and  is  a  land  beautified 
by  nature.  As  Judaea  was  isolated  and  secure  in  her  natural 
boundaries,  so  was  Samaria  open  to  approach.  The  "  open- 
ness "  of  the  land  is  constantly  dwelt  upon  by  those  who  pic- 
ture its  location.  It  was  difficult  to  resist  invasion  and 
Samaria  was  attacked  much  more  often  than  her  sister  to  the 
south.     Samaria  was  a  fruitful  land,  yielding  to  cultivation; 

a  George  Adam  Smith':  Historical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land,208. 


412  THE  WORI^D'S   progress. 

she  lay  open  to  influences  on  every  hand,  and  was  the  first  to 
receive  fresh  impulses  and  ideas.  "  Today,  amid  the  peace- 
ful beauty  of  the  scene — ^the  secluded  vale  covered  with  corn 
fields,  through  which  the  winding  streams  flash  and  glisten 
into  the  hazy  distance,  and  the  gentle  hill  rises  without  a 
scarp  to  the  olives  waving  on  its  summit — it  is  possible  to 
appreciate  Isaiah's  name  for  Samaria,  the  crown  of  pride  of 
Bphraim,  the  Hower  of  his  glorious  beauty  which  is  on  the 
head  of  the  fat  valley/' ' 

East  of  both  countries  and  the  Central  Range  which  con- 
tained them,  flows  the  Jordan.  Geological  ages  ago  it  is 
supposed  that  a  great  sea  occupied  the  valley  of  the  Jordan 
and  the  regions  on  either  side.  Beneath  its  deep  waters,  layers 
of  limestone  accumulated.  In  course  of  time,  mighty  convul- 
sions within  the  earth  hurled  these  layers  of  rock  in  twain  and 
threw  them  up  on  both  sides,  until  the  present  mountain  ranges 
were  formed.  At  the  same  time  a  series  of  rocks  were  cast 
up  diagonally  across  this  region  to  the  south,  thus  enclosing 
a  portion  of  the  salt  waters  within  the  basin  so  formed.  Ages 
of  rain  and  of  glaciers  followed  and  when  these  abated,  the 
new  surface  was  left  to  develop  its  system  of  drainage.  The 
situation  at  present  is  almost  identical  with  that  in  early  Bible 
times.  In  the  northern  part  of  Palestine,  at  the  base  of  the 
Lebanons,  a  series  of  streams,  mountain-born,  take  a  south- 
ernly  direction  and  empty  into  a  marshy  pool  known  as  Lake 
Huleh;  from  the  southern  part  of  this  lake  the  river  Jordan 
flows  on  to  the  Lake  of  Galilee,  whence  the  stream  once  again 
issues  forth,  this  time  down  a  steep  incline,  giving  it  rapid 
impetus  of  motion,  from  whence  comes  its  name:  Jordan — 
the  Down-comer.  At  last  its  valley  widens  and  by  several 
estuaries  the  river  finally  empties  into  the  Dead  Sea. 

The  beauty  attending  many  rivers  of  the  earth  is  lacking 
in  the  Jordan.  Cutting  down  its  channels  in  a  rift  left  already 
deep  by  eruption,  this  valley  lies  deep  below  the  sea-level  and 
is  exceedingly  hot.  Malaria  lurks  in  the  jungles  that  border 
the  river-sides,  and  at  no  time  has  the  region  been  thickly 
populated.  The  river  is  not  suited  to  irrigation,  but  certain 
portions  of  the  valley  are  watered  by  its  tributaries  sufficiently 
to  make  gardens  possible. 

»  George  Adam  Smith :  Historical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land,  349. 


THK    STORY    OF   THE    HEBREWS.  4I3 

The  Dead  Sea  occupies  the  lowest  portion  of  the  valley. 
Soundings  have  shown  it  to  be  very  deep.  Not  only  are  its 
waters  heavily  charged  with  salt,  but  other  chemicals  make 
yet  more  uninhabitable  its  basin.  No  fish  or  other  form  of 
life  lives  in  its  waters,  which  possess  remarkable  clearness 
and  are  intensely  blue.  Having  no  outlets  save  evaporation, 
and  lying  where  heat  is  great,  the  sea  is  like  a  mighty  caldron! 
above  which  a  column  of  steam  rises  constantly.  6,000,000 
tons  of  water  are  estimated  to  rise  from  it  daily  in  the  form 
of  vapor. 

From  its  very  nature,  the  Jordan  was  not  a  river  to  which 
a  nation  might  become  devoted— as,  for  example,  the  Egyp- 
tians were  to  their  Nile.  Nevertheless,  no  other  stream  has 
become  so  embodied  into  literature,  or  so  endeared  to  a  great 
religious  world.  The  Hebrews  regarded  the  Jordan  as  a 
boundary — a  frontier.  Significant  is  the  fact  that  when  it 
is  mentioned  in  the  Bible  it  is  generally  accompanied  by  some 
word  meaning  over  or  across.  Over  Jordan,  beyond  the 
stream  which  because  of  its  fever-breeding,  lion-populated 
jungles  and  its  strange  sea,  signified  death,  destruction,  calam- 
ity, rather  than  life.  Beyond  the  Jordan,  then,  lay  the 
Promised  Land,  flowing  with  milk  and  honey. 

East  of  the  Jordan  valley,  the  Eastern  Range  rises  similarly 
to  the  Central  Range  on  the  west  side.  The  plateaus  of  Moab 
and  Gilead  seem  higher  than  the  others,  for  whereas  the  Cen- 
tral Range  rises  gradually  from  a  series  of  foothills  to  its 
exalted  height,  the  Eastern  Range  rises  abruptly  from  the 
extremely  low  river-valley. 

The  Eastern  Range  is  blessed  with  a  temperate  climate. 
Heat  is  always  moderated  by  breezes  which  bring  health  and 
prosperity  with  them.  The  soil  is  fertile,  sufficiently  watered 
and  very  productive.  It  is  a  region  where  agriculture  and 
grazing  are  followed,  and  natural  conditions  are  favorable  to 
both  occupations.  In  spite  of  these  advantages,  the  region 
lies  exposed  to  the  south  and  east.  Desert  tribes  make  life 
and  fortune  uncertain  for  the  inhabitants.  Even  today,  when 
conditions  have  been  somewhat  improved,  those  who  grow 
crops  in  this  region  must  pay  tribute  to  wandering  tribes  who 
demand  it,  or  lose  their  all.  How  much  more  precarious  must 
life  have  been  in  those  days  when  even  among  the  most  en- 


414  THE  wori^d's  progress, 

lightened  nations  the  hand  of  the  plunderer  was  scarcely 
restrained  at  all.  The  Hebrew  tribes  which  settled  this  plateau 
were  in  the  beginning  as  strong  as  those  that  located  farther 
east,  but  they  could  not  maintain  their  individuality  against 
the  conditions  that  beset  them.  Sooner  or  later,  they  drifted 
with  the  restless  hordes  and  lost  their  identity. 

One  more  natural  division  remains  to  be  considered — the 
Plain  of  Esdraelon.  Triangular  in  shape,  one  point  lies  north 
of  Mt.  Carmel,  while  the  two  long  lines  extend  south-easterly, 
and  meet  the  third  near  the  river  Jordan.  It  was  this  famous 
plain  that  gave  access  to  the  Central  Range  from  the  west — 
from  the  Coast  Plain,  approach  to  Samaria  was  not  difficult 
by  this  means. 

The  region  is  rather  made  up  of  a  series  of  plains,  broken 
by  scattered  mountains,  yet  permitting  free  passage  from  the 
sea  to  the  river  Jordan.  An  ancient  route  lay  along  this  way. 
It  has  been  called  the  key  to  Palestine,  and  over  it  came  the 
enemies  of  Israel.  Especially  interesting  is  the  following 
description,  with  the  added  explanation  of  a  bit  of  ancient 
Hebrew  poetry  characterizing  the  region: 

"  As  you  stand  upon  that  last  headland  of  Gilboa,  200  feet 
above  the  plain,  .  .  .  the  great  triangle  is  spread  before 
you.  Along  the  north  of  it  the  steep  brown  wall  of  the 
Galilean  hills,  about  1000  feet  high,  runs  almost  due  west, 
till  it  breaks  out  and  down  to  the  feet  of  Carmel,  in  the  forest 
slopes  just  high  enough  to  hide  the  Plain  of  Acre  and  sea. 
But  over  and  past  these  slopes  Carmel's  steady  ridge,  deepen- 
ing in  blue  the  while,  carries  the  eye  out  to  its  dark  pro- 
montory above  the  Mediterranean.  From  this  end  of  Carmel 
the  lower  Samarian  hills,  green  with  bush  and  dotted  by  white 
villages,  run  southeast  to  the  main  Samarian  range,  and  on 
their  edge,  due  south,  seven  miles  across  the  bay,  Jenin  stands 
out  with  its  minarets  and  palms.  .  .  .  But  the  rest  of  the 
plain  is  before  you — a  great  expanse  of  loam,  red  and  black, 
which  in  a  more  peaceful  land  would  be  one  sea  of  waving 
wheat  with  island  villages;  but  here  is  what  its  modern  name 
implies,  a  free,  wild  prairie,  upon  which  but  one  or  two  ham- 
lets have  ventured  forth  from  the  cover  of  the  hills  and  a  timid 
and  tardy  cultivation  is  only  now  seeking  to  overtake  the  waste 
of  coarse  grass  and  the  thistly  herbs  that  camels  love.     There 


The  story  0^  The  Hebrews.  415 

is  no  water  visible.  The  Kishon  itself  flows  in  a  muddy 
trench,  unseen  five  yards  away.  But  here  and  there  a  clump 
of  trees  shows  where  a  deep  well  is  worked  to  keep  a  little 
orchard  green  through  summer.  .  .  .  The  roads  have  no 
limit  to  their  breadth,  but  sprawl,  as  if  at  most  seasons  one 
caravan  could  not  follow  for  mud  on  the  path  of  another.  But 
these  details  sink  in  a  great  sense  of  space,  and  of  a  level  made 
almost  absolute  by  the  rise  of  hills  on  every  side  of  it.  It  is  a 
vast  inland  basin,  and  from  it  there  breaks  just  at  your  feet, 
between  Jezreel  and  Shunem,  the  valley  Jordanwards, — breaks 
as  visibly  as  river  from  lake,  with  a  slope  and  almost  the  look 
of  a  current  upon  it.  .  .  .  From  Jezreel  you  can  appreciate 
everything  in  the  literature  and  in  the  history  of  Esdraelon. 

"  To  begin  with,  you  can  enjoy  that  happiest  sketch  of  a 
landscape  and  its  history  that  was  ever  drawn  in  half  a  dozen 
lines,  Issachar — to  which  the  most  of  Esdraelon  fell — 

"  Issachar  is  a  large-limbed  ass, 
Stretching  himself  between  the  sheepfolds: 
For  he  saw  a  resting-place  that  it  was  good, 
And  the  land  that  it  was  pleasant.' 

"  Such  exactly  is  Esdraelon — a  land  relaxed  and  sprawling 
up  among  the  hills  to  north,  south  and  east,  as  you  will  see 
a  loosened  ass  roll  and  stretch  his  limbs  any  day  in  the  sun- 
shine of  a  Syrian  village  yard.  To  the  highlander  looking 
down  upon  it,  Esdraelon  is  room  to  stretch  in  and  lie  happy. 
Yet  the  figure  of  the  ass  goes  further — the  room  must  be  paid 
for— 

*  So  he  bowed  his  shoulder  to  bear 
And  became  a  servant  under  task-work.' 

"  The  inheritors  of  this  plain  never  enjoyed  the  highland 
independent  of  Manasseh  or  Naphtali.  Open  to  east  and  west, 
Esdraelon  was  at  distant  intervals  the  war-path  or  battle-field 
of  great  empires.  .  .  .  Even  when  there  has  been  no  in- 
vasion to  fear,  Esdraelon  has  still  suffered :  when  she  has  not 
been  the  camp  of  the  foreigner  she  has  served  as  the  estate 
of  her  neighbors."  * 

^George  Adam  Smith :   Historical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land,  38L 


4X6  TH^  "world's  progress. 

CuMAT^  "AND  Productivity  of  Pai^estine. 

As  we  might  expect  in  a  land  possessing  such  a  varied 
topography,  nearly  every  known  climate  is  represented  in 
Palestine.  Along  the  seashore  the  salt  breezes  of  ocean  blow ; 
the  climate  of  the  Coast  Plain  is  mild  and  pleasant,  and  favor- 
able to  the  growth  of  gardens  and  orchards;  within  the  Cen- 
tral Range  itself  several  varieties  of  climate  prevail,  and  in 
the  low  valley  of  the  Jordan  and  in  the  region  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  the  heat  of  the  tropics  obtains.  The  plateaus  of  the 
Eastern  Range  are  visited  by  health-giving  breezes,  which 
moderate  the  atmosphere.  Farther  east  and  south  extends 
the  desert,  with  its  parched  sands  and  sultry  air,  yet  in  the 
very  sight  of  these  desert  wastes  rise  snowy  mountain  p^aks. 

"  There  are  palms  in  Jericho  and  pine  forests  in  Lebanon. 
In  the  Ghor,  in  summer,  you  are  under  a  temperature  of  more 
than  100  degrees  Fahrenheit,  and  yet  you  see  glistening  the 
snow-fields  of  Hermon.  All  the  intermediate  steps  between 
these  extremes  the  eye  can  see  at  one  sweep  from  Carmel — 
the  sands  and  palms  of  the  coast;  the  wheat-fields  of  Esdraelon, 
the  oaks  and  sycamores  of  Galilee;  the  pines,  the  peaks,  the 
snows  of  Anti-Lebanon.  How  closely  these  differences  lie 
to  each  other!  Take  a  section  of  the  country  across  Judaea. 
With  its  palms  and  shadoofs  the  Philistine  Plain  might  be 
a  part  of  the  Egyptian  Delta;  but  on  the  hills  of  the  Shep- 
helah  which  overlook  it,  you  are  in  the  scenery  of  Southern 
Europe ;  the  Judaean  moors  which  overlook  them  are  like  the 
barer  uplands  of  Central  Germany ;  the  shepherds  wear  sheep  • 
skin  cloaks  and  live  under  stone  roofs — sometimes  the  snow 
lies  deep;  a  few  miles  farther  east  and  you  are  down  on  the 
desert  among  the  Bedouin,  with  their  tents  of  hair  and  their 
cotton  clothing;  a  few  miles  farther  still,  and  you  drop  to 
torrid  heat  in  the  Jordan  Valley;  a  few  miles  beyond  that 
and  you  rise  to  the  plateau  of  the  Belka,  where  the  Arabs  say 
*  the  cold  is  always  at  home.'  Yet  from  Philistia  to  the  Belka 
is  scarcely  seventy  miles." ' 

The  year  is  divided  into  a  wet  and  a  dry  season.  The 
rains  begin  the  last  of  October  and  are  over  by  the  last  of 
March.     These  are  called  the  "  early  "  rains  in  the  Old  Testa- 

'  George  Adam  Smith :  Historical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land,  56. 


THE   STORY   OF   THE    HEBREWS.  4I7 

mfint.  Showers  which  fall  in  the  late  spring  are  called  the 
"  latter  "  rains.  From  May  until  October  the  summer  is  dry. 
The  vegetation  is  sustained  in  many  places  by  the  heavy  dews. 
Water  is  not  abundant  and  the  rain-water  which  falls  during 
the  winter  months  is  stored  in  wells  and  cisterns  for  use  in 
the  dry  months. 

Flowers  of  many  varieties  are  found  through  the  land 
and  range  from  those  common  to  tropical  and  desert  lands  to 
those  native  to  high  altitudes.  As  in  Egypt  the  fertile  land 
borders  upon  the  shifting  desert  sands,  so  in  Palestine  the 
strong  contrasts  between  the  productive  and  waste  lands  is 
the  more  marked  because  of  their  proximity. 

Palestine  is  not  a  land  of  heavy  forests.  To  be  sure,  ages 
upon  ages  of  habitation  have  divested  many  slopes  of  native 
timber,  but  evidences  go  to  show  that  at  no  time  since  records 
began  has  the  country  been  heavily  forested.  Today  the  wood- 
lands are  frequently  mere  undergrowth.  Orchards  are  plenti- 
ful. The  olive  is  most  widely  cultivated;  apricots,  figs, 
oranges,  almond  and  walnut  trees  are  grown,  and  the  vine 
is  grown  extensively.  Grain  fields  wave  on  the  plains,  in  the 
valleys  and  lowlands,  wheat,  barley  and  millet  being  most  abund- 
ant. Vegetables  of  many  varieties  are  commonly  raised.  Beans, 
tomatoes,  onions  and  melons  are  produced  in  large  quantities. 
Grass  is  grown  only  on  small  areas,  pasturage  being  for  the 
most  part  found  on  the  public  land.  During  the  summer 
months  pasturage  exists  only  near  the  large  fountains  or  the 
carefully  built  cisterns.  These  are  jealously  guarded  by  their 
owners.  In  earlier  times  and  now,  to  some  extent,  wells  and 
pools  are  provided  to  preserve  water  falling  during  the  winter, 
and  these  are  for  the  use  of  all  who  come  to  them  with  their 
flocks  and  herds. 

We  find  no  such  condition  here  as  in  Egypt,  where  crops 
grow  abundantly  if  the  seeds  be  hut  once  dropped  into  the 
ground.  On  the  contrary,  while  grains,  fruits  and  garden 
produce  are  generally  grown,  care  and  constant  industry  are 
required  to  bring  forth  good  yields.  Certain  portions  of  the 
country  are  adapted  to  the  art  of  husbandry,  while  others 
have  always  been  better  suited  to  cattle  and  sheep  raising. 
So  much  of  the  tablelands  is  rocky  and  stony  and  unsuited 
for  cultivation  that  no  arable  spots  are  allowed  to  go  untended, 


4i8  THE  world's  progress. 

CHAPTER   VI. 
Efi^Ects  of  Geographicai,  Conditions  Upon  the  Hebrews. 

Certain  natural  effects  of  the  physical  conditions  upon  the 
people  in  Palestine  have  been  apparent  as  we  traced  the  gen- 
eral land  formation.  It  is  evident  that  in  an  age  when  easy 
communication  was  essential  to  union,  there  could  be  no  politi- 
cal unity  among  a  people  dwelling  in  a  country  so  divided  by 
mountains,  plains,  and  valleys.  Again,  we  would  expect 
tribes  settling  the  plateaus  of  the  Central  Range  to  develop 
differently  from  those  peopling  the  fertile  plain  of  Sharon. 
Indeed,  within  this  range  itself  we  have  found  that  the  inhabi- 
tants of  austere  Judaea  led  a  life  unlike  that  of  more  accessible 
Samaria.  Other  effects  of  natural  conditions  upon  the 
Hebrews  are  evident,  as  we  shall  see. 

The  very  climate  of  Palestine  seems  to  have  had  its  in- 
fluence in  molding  the  religious  thought  of  Israel.  "  The 
climate  of  Palestine  is  regular  enough  to  provoke  men  to 
methodical  labour  for  its  fruits,  but  the  regularity  is  often 
interrupted.  The  early  rains  or  the  latter  rains  fail,  drought 
comes  occasionally  for  two  years  in  succession,  and  that  means 
famine  and  pestilence.  There  are  too,  the  visitations  of  the 
locust,  which  are  said  to  be  bad  every  fifth  or  sixth  year,  and 
there  are  earthquakes,  also  periodical  in  Syria.  Thus  a  purely 
mechanical  conception  of  nature  as  something  certain  and  in- 
evitable, whose  processes  are  more  or  less  under  man's  con- 
trol, is  impossible;  and  the  imagination  is  roused  to  feel  the 
presence  of  a  will  behind  nature,  in  face  of  whose  interruptions 
of  the  fruitfulness  or  stability  of  the  land  man  is  absolutely 
helpless.  To  such  a  climate,  then,  is  partly  due  Israel's  doc- 
trine of  Providence."  *  In  Deuteronomy  the  contrast  between 
Egypt,  the  land  just  left,  and  Palestine,  to  which  Israel  was 
then  passing,  is  drawn,  and  the  price  of  prosperity  definitely 
given. 

"  But  the  land,  whither  thou  goest  in  to  possess  it,  is  not 
as  the  land  of  Egypt,  from  whence  ye  came  out,  where  thou 

1  Smith :  Historical  Geography  of  Holy  Land,  73. 


The  story  of  The  Hebrews.  419 

sowedst  thy  seed,  and  wateredst  it  with  thy  foot,  as  a  garden  of 
herbs :  but  the  land,  whither  ye  go  to  possess  it,  is  a  land  of 
hills  and  valleys,  and  drinketh  water  of  the  rain  of  heaven. 
A  land  which  Jehovah  thy  God  careth  for :  the  eyes  of  Jehovah 
thy  God  are  always  upon  it,  from  the  beginning  of  the  year 
even  unto  the  end  of  the  year. 

"  And  it  shall  come  to  pass,  if  ye  shall  harken  diligently 
unto  my  commandments  which  I  command  you  this  day,  to 
love  Jehovah  your  God,  and  to  serve  him  with  all  your  heart 
and  with  all  your  soul,  that  I  will  give  you  the  rain  of  your 
land  in  his  due  season,  the  first  rain  and  the  latter  rain,  that 
thou  mayest  gather  in  thy  com,  and  thy  wine,  and  thine  oil. 
And  I  will  send  grass  in  thy  fields  for  thy  cattle,  that  thou 
mayst  eat  and  be  full.  Take  heed  to  yourselves,  that  your 
heart  be  not  deceived,  and  ye  turn  aside,  and  serve  other  gods, 
and  worship  them;  and  then  Jehovah's  wrath  be  kindled 
against  you  and  he  shut  up  the  heaven,  that  the  land  yield  not 
her  fruit;  and  lest  ye  perish  quickly  from  off  the  good  land 
which  Jehovah  giveth  you." " 

The  productivity  of  the  soil  had  two  important  results  in 
the  development  of  the  Hebrews.  The  first  affected  the  very 
nature  of  their  being,  for  it  changed  them  from  desert  nomads 
into  herders  and  small  farmers.  In  place  of  the  tent,  they 
adopted  the  house,  the  fixed  habitation.  Instead  of  wander- 
ing from  pasture  to  pasture  with  their  cattle  and  families, 
as  they  had  done  for  generation  upon  generation  before  their 
sojourn  in  Egypt,  they  cultivated  the  land  and  found  it  over- 
flowing with  "  milk  and  honey."  In  the  Song  of  Moses  this 
great  transformation  is  pictured  with  vividness  and  beauty: 

"  Remember  the  days  of  old, 

Consider  the  years  of  generation  on  generation. 
Ask  thy  father  and  he  will  show  thee, 

Thine  elders  and  they  will  tell  thee. 
When  the  highest  gave  nations  their  heritage, 

When  he  sundered  the  children  of  men. 
He  set  the  border  of  the  tribes. 

By  the  number  of  the  children  of  Israel. 
For  the  portion  of  Jehovah  is  his  people, 


*  Deuteronomy  11, 10. 


420  THE  world's  PROGRKSS. 

Jacob  the  measure  of  his  heritage. 
He  found  him  in  a  land  of  the  desert, 

In  a  waste,  in  a  howling  wilderness. 
He  encompassed  him.  He  distinguished  him. 

He  watched  him  as  the  apple  of  His  eye. 
As  an  eagle  stirreth  his  nest, 

Fluttereth  over  his  young, 
Spreadeth  abroad  his  wings,  taketh  them, 

Beareth  them  up  on  his  pinions, 
Jehovah  alone  led  him 

And  no  strange  god  was  with  him. 
He  made  him  to  ride  on  the  Land's  high  places. 

And  to  eat  of  the  growth  of  the  field. 
He  gave  him  to  suck  honey  from  the  cliff. 

And  oil  from  the  flinty  rock. 
Cream  of  kine  and  milk  of  sheep, 

With  lambs*  fat  and  rams' 
Breed  of  Bashan  and  he-goats, 

With  fat  of  the  kidneys  of  wheat ; 
And  the  blood  of  the  grape  thou  drankest  in  foam !  " 

While  settlement  in  Palestine  produced  an  advancement  in 
civilization,  it  brought  at  the  same  time  a  lower  plane  of 
religious  life  and  thought.  With  sudden  plenty  and  no  longer 
enforced  abstinence  of  the  desert,  came  a  certain  confusion 
and  riot.  The  desert  tends  to  inspire  monotheistic  ideas 
and  conceptions;  lands  of  varied  aspect,  such  as  Greece  or 
Palestine,  inspire  polytheistic  conceptions — divided  power 
rather  than  unity. 

"  The  creed  of  the  desert  nomad  is  simple  and  austere — 
for  nature  about  him  is  monotonous,  silent,  and  illiberal.  But 
Syria  is  a  land  of  lavish  gifts  and  oracles — where  woods  are 
full  of  mysterious  speech,  and  rivers  burst  suddenly  from  the 
ground,  where  the  freedom  of  nature  excites,  and  seems  to 
sanction,  the  passions  of  the  human  body,  where  food  is  rich, 
and  men  drink  wine.  The  spirit  and  the  senses  are  equally 
taken  by  surprise.  No  one  can  tell  how  many  voices  a  tretf 
has  who  has  not  come  up  to  it  from  the  silence  of  the  great 
desert.     .     .     , 

"  But  with  the  awe  comes  the  sense  of  indulgence,  and 


THE   STORY   OF   THE   HEBREWS.  421 

the  Starved  instincts  of  the  body  break  riotously  forth.  .  .  . 
All  this  is  said  to  have  happened  to  Israel  from  almost  their 
first  encampment  in  Canaan." 

"  They  moved  him  to  jealousy  with  strange  gods, 
With  abominations  provoked  him  to  anger. 

They  sacrificed  to  monsters  undivine, 
Gods  they  had  known  not, 

New  things,  lately  come  in, 

Their  fathers  never  had  them  in  awe." 

One  more  effect  of  physical  conditions  may  be  noted  here, 
leaving  the  rest  to  appear  in  connection  with  Israel's  story — 
namely,  the  effect  of  the  picturesqueness  of  the  land  upon  these 
former  desert  nomads.  For  one  who  has  made  himself 
familiar  with  the  beautiful  places  of  earth,  Palestine  has  its 
charm,  but  to  people  journeying  thither  from  the  wastes  of 
desert,  the  land  possesses  matchless  beaut)*.  Before  calling 
attention  to  the  reflection  of  scener}^  to  be  found  in  ancient 
Hebrew  writings,  let  us  read  the  description  of  certain  aspects 
of  the  country,  as  given  by  one  who  knows  every  foot  of  the 
land  and  has  watched  it  in  and  out  of  season. 

"  There  is  the  coast-line  from  the  headland  of  Carmel — 
northwards  the  Gulf  of  Haifa,  with  its  yellow  sands  and 
palms,  .  .  .  southwards  Sharon  with  her  scattered  forest, 
her  coast  of  sand  and  grass :  westwards  the  green  sea  and  the 
wonderful  shadows  of  the  clouds  upon  it — grey  when  you 
look  at  them  with  your  face  to  the  sun,  but,  with  the  sun  be- 
hind you,  purple,  and  more  like  Homer's  *  wine-colored  '  water 
than  anything  I  have  seen  on  the  Mediterranean.  There  is 
the  excellency  of  Carmel  itself:  wheat-fields  climbing  from 
Esdraelon  to  the  first  bare  rocks,  then  thick  bush  and  scrub, 
young  ilex,  wild  olives  and  pines,  with  undergrowth  of  large 
purple  thistles,  mallows  with  blossoms  like  pelargoniums, 
stocks  of  hollyhocks,  golden  broom,  honeysuckle,  and  convol- 
vulus— then,  betw^een  the  shoulders  of  the  mountain,  olive- 
groves,  their  dull  green  mass  banked  by  the  lighter  forest 
trees,  and  on  the  flanks  the  broad  lawns,  where  in  the  shadow 
of  great  oaks  you  look  far  out  to  sea.  There  is  the  Lake  ot 
Galilee  as  you  see  it  from  Gadara,  with  the  hills  of  Naphtali 
above  it.  and  Hermon  filling  all  the  north.     There  is  the  pro- 


422  THE  WORU>'S  PROGRESS. 

spective  of  the  Jordan  Valley  as  you  look  up  from  over  Jericho, 
between  the  bare  ranges  of  Gilead  and  Ephraim,  with  the 
winding  ribbon  of  the  river  s  jungle,  and  the  top  of  Hermon 
like  a  white  cloud  in  the  infinite  distance.  There  is  the  forest 
of  Gilead,  where  you  ride,  two  thousand  feet  high,  under  the 
boughs  of  great  trees  creaking  and  rustling  in  the  wind,  with 
all  Western  Palestine  before  you.  There  is  the  moonlight 
view  out  of  the  bush  on  the  northern  flank  of  Tabor,  the  leap 
of  the  sun  over  the  edge  of  Bashan,  summer  morning  in  the 
Shephelah,  and  sunset  over  the  Mediterranean,  when  you  see 
it  from  the  gateway  of  the  ruins  on  Samaria  down  the  glisten- 
ing Vale  of  Barley.  Even  in  the  barest  provinces  you  get 
many  a  little  picture  that  lives  with  you  for  life — a  chocolate- 
coloured  bank  with  red  poppies  against  the  green  of  the  prickly 
pear  hedge  above  it,  and  a  yellow  lizard  darting  across;  a 
river-bed  of  pink  oleanders  flush  with  the  plain;  a  gorge  in 
Judaea,  where  you  look  up  between  limestone  walls  picked  out 
with  tufts  of  grass  and  black-and-tan  goats  cropping  at  them, 
the  deep  blue  sky  over  all,  and,  on  the  edge  of  the  only  shadow, 
a  well,  a  trough,  and  a  solitary  herdsman. 

"  And  then  there  are  those  prospects  in  which  no  other 
country  can  match  Palestine,  for  no  other  has  a  valley  like 
the  Ghor,  or  a  desert  like  that  which  falls  from  Judaea  to  the 
Dead  Sea.  There  is  the  view  from  the  Mount  of  Olives, 
down  twenty  miles  of  desert  hill-tops  to  the  deep  blue  waters, 
with  the  wall  of  Moab  glowing  on  the  further  side  like  burn- 
ished copper,  and  staining  the  blue  sea  red  with  its  light. 
There  is  the  view  of  the  Dead  Sea  through  the  hazy  afternoon, 
when  across  the  yellow  foreground  of  Jeshimon  the  white 
Lisan  rises  like  a  pack  of  Greenland  ice  from  the  blue  waters, 
and  beyond  it  the  Moab  range,  misty,  silent  and  weird.  There 
are  the  precipices  of  Masada  and  Engedi  sheer  from  the  salt 
coast.  And,  above  all,  there  is  the  view  from  Engedi  under 
the  full  moon,  when  the  sea  is  bridged  with  gold,  and  the 
eastern  mountains  are  black  with  a  border  of  opal."* 

The  literature  of  no  other  people  has  more  vividly  reflected 
a  landscape  than  has  that  of  the  ancient  Hebrews.  Without 
some  understanding  of  Palestine,  one  would  fail  to  appreciate 
much  that  is  beautiful  in  Hebrew  poetry.     While  we  shall 

•  Smith :  Historical  Geography,  94. 


TH^  STORY   OF  THE   HEBREWS.  423 

touch  upon  this  again  in  the  consideration  of  Hebrew  Utera- 
ture,  some  examples  will  sufficiently  illustrate  this  point. 
Take,  for  example,  a  portion  of  the  Hundred  and  Fourth 
Psalm : 

He  sendeth  forth  springs  into  the  valleys; 

They  run  among  the  mountains: 
They  give  drink  to  every  beast  of  the  field ; 

The  wild  asses  quench  their  thirst. 
By  them  the  fowl  of  the  heaven  have  their  habitation, 

They  sing  around  the  branches. 
He  watereth  the  mountains  from  his  chambers : 

The  earth  is  satisfied  with  the  fruits  of  thy  work. 
He  causeth  the  grass  to  grow  for  the  cattle, 

And  herb  for  the  service  of  man : 
That  he  may  bring  forth  food  out  of  the  earth, 

And  wine  that  maketh  glad  the  heart  of  man, 
And  oil  to  make  his  face  to  shine,  '^ 

And  bread  that  strengtheneth  man's  heart. 
The  trees  of  Jehovah  are  satisfied ; 

The  cedars  of  Lebanon,  which  he  hath  planted ; 
Where  the  birds  make  their  nests : 

As  for  the  stork,  the  fir  trees  are  her  house; 
The  high  mountains  are  for  the  wild  goats ; 

The  rocks  are  a  refuge  for  the  conies. 

O  Jehovah,  how  manifold  are  thy  works! 
In  wisdom  hast  thou  made  them  all : 

The  earth  is  full  of  thy  riches. 
Yonder  is  the  sea,  great  and  wide. 
Wherein  are  things  creeping  innumerable, 

Both  small  and  great  beasts. 
There  go  the  ships ; 

There  is  leviathan,  whom  thou  hast  formed  to  take  his 
pastime  therein. 
These  wait  all  upon  thee, 
That  thou  mayest  give  them  their  meat  in  due  season. 

This  poem  reflects  general  characteristics  of  the  land.  The 
next  is  a  pastoral  poem  which  could  have  been  written  only 
in  Judaea.     Its  figures  are  pastoral  throughout,  and  lack  of 


424  THE  WORWJ'S   PROGRESS. 

acquaintance  with  the  land  wherein  it  was  produced  often 
causes  one  to  miss  the  successive  pictures  it  portrays.  Refer- 
ence is  made  to  the  Twenty-third  Psalm,  wherein  the  compari- 
son of  the  shepherd  with  his  sheep  is  maintained. 

"  The  Lord  is  my  shepherd, 
I  shall  not  want." 

Only  a  good  faithful  shepherd  could  lead  his  sheep  in 
Judaea  so  that  at  no  time  would  they  want  for  care  or  food. 

"  He  maketh  me  to  lie  down  in  green  pastures : " 

Pasturage  was  often  scanty,  and  to  lie  always  in  green 
pastures  was  the  greatest  boon  that  could  befall  the  sheep. 

"  He  leadeth  me  beside  the  still  waters." 

Not  lakes,  but  cisterns  or  pools,  constructed  to  hold  the 
rains  of  winter  for  use  in  the  dry  months  of  summer.  Unless 
these  were  carefully  sought  out  in  each  new  pasture,  the  sheep 
would  suffer  from  thirst. 

"  Yea,  though  I  walk  through  the  valley  of  the  shadow  of  death, 
I  will  fear  no  evil ; 
For  thou  art  with  me: 
Thy  rod  and  thy  staff  they  comfort  me." 

When  one  pasture  was  exhausted,  it  was  necessary  to 
journey  to  another.  Danger  lurked  on  every  side.  Did  the 
sheep  wander  away,  they  were  sure  to  be  attacked  by  fierce 
animals,  or  stolen  by  other  herders.  The  shepherd  led  the 
way  amid  all  dangers,  and  his  rod  and  staff  gave  assurance 
to  the  sheep  some  distance  from  him. 

"  Thou  preparest  a  table  before  me 
In  the  presence  of  mine  enemies: 
Thou  anointest  my  head  with  oil ; 
My  cup  runneth  over." 


THE  STORY  OF  THE   HEBREWS.  42$ 

The  figure  is  not  changed  here,  as  some  have  supposed, 
and  a  banquet  introduced.  Quite  on  the  contrary.  In  that 
land  grew  many  poisonous  herbs,  Hkely  to  be  unnoticed  by 
the  sheep.  The  shepherd  watched  to  see  that  his  flock  found 
food  free  from  these  enemies.  Then  at  last,  when  the  night 
fell,  and  the  flock  was  gathered  into  the  fold,  the  shepherd 
stood  by  the  door  with  a  cup  of  oil  in  his  hand  ready  to  pour 
on  the  heads  of  weary,  exhausted  lambs,  thus  to  refresh  and 
revive  them.  Only  a  little  could  be  spared  for  each  one.  To 
have  a  cup  filled  to  overflowing  was  a  wonderful  blessing. 
So  is  the  figure  carried  on  to  the  end  of  the  beautiful  song, 
and  only  goodness  and  mercy  could  possibly  attend  one  so  pro- 
tected. 


1—29 


426  THE  world's  progress. 

CHAPTER   VII. 
Sources  of  Hebrew  History. 

We  may  divide  the  sources  of  early  Hebrew  history  into 
(1)  Hebrew  sources,  and  (2)  sources  supplied  by  contem- 
poraneous nations  and  by  archaeology.  The  Hebrew  sources 
are  principally  three:  the  historical  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, the  Talmud,  the  writings  of  Josephus.  The  sources 
derived  elsewhere  are  records  and  inscriptions  throwing  light 
upon  the  events  of  this  ancient  nation  as  chronicled  by  the 
Egyptians,  Babylonians,  and  Assyrians,  and  statements  of 
Greek  travellers  and  writers  bearing  upon  their  later  develop- 
ment. Moreover,  in  late  years  the  spade  of  the  excavator  has 
unearthed  ruins  and  remains  which  have  added  materially 
to  previous  knowledge  of  the  subject  and  have  established 
beyond  any  doubt  facts  previously  unsettled. 

Before  taking  up  a  discussion  of  the  historical  books  of 
the  Old  Testament — the  first  of  the  Hebrew  sources, — it  is 
necessary  that  we  consider  the  compilation  of  the  Bible,  and 
understand  how  the  many  books  which  compose  it  were  made 
up,  and  gathered  into  the  one  volume  with  which  we  are  now 
familiar. 

Only  in  late  years  have  people  generally  been  ready  to 
approach  the  study  of  the  Bible  in  the  spirit  of  modern  investi- 
gation long  applied  to  other  fields  of  learning.  While  the 
reasons  for  this  reluctance  may  not  be  at  once  apparent,  they 
are  not  difficult  to  discover. 

During  the  Middle  Ages  religious  teaching  was  guarded 
and  kept  alive  by  monks  in  the  monasteries  of  Europe.  Only 
with  them  was  learning  of  any  sort  fostered  and  saved  from 
extinction  during  the  period  known  as  the  Dark  Ages.  The 
books  which  these  monks  studied,  and  the  records  and  pro- 
ductions they  committed  to  paper  or  parchment,  were  invari- 
ably written  in  Latin — a  tongue  unknown  to  the  people  at 
large.  Since  the  Bible  existed  only  in  Latin,  Hebrew  or 
Greek,  it  was  a  sealed  book  to  the  masses,  who  knew  it  only 
through  brief  portions  read  and  explained  to  them  by  the 
priests. 


The  story  of  the  Hebrews.  427 

After  a  time,  translations  were  made,  first  of  portions  only, 
then  the  entire  work  was  rendered  in  modern  languages. 
Still  it  was  not  considered  fitting  to  allow  its  contents  to  be 
generally  known.  Copies  were  chained  to  pulpits  in  the 
cathedrals  and  were  opened  by  the  priest  alone.  Those  who 
might  have  been  able  to  procure  the  costly  copies  were  not 
permitted  to  do  so.  In  the  story  of  England  we  shall  find 
that  only  a  few  centuries  ago,  to  possess  a  Bible  and  read  it 
aloud  in  the  family  was  made  an  offense  and  was  punishable 
if  discovered.  Thus  a  mystery  attached  to  the  Scriptures,  in- 
stilled into  the  masses  by  those  who  guarded  the  ancient  volume. 
The  awe  and  reverence  so  aroused,  clung  to  the  Bible  genera- 
tions after  its  contents  had  become  familiar  to  the  Christian 
world.  One  scholar  calls  the  Bible  "  literature  smothered 
in  reverence." 

Again,  no  other  event  can  be  cited  throughout  history 
which  has  had  so  great  an  effect  upon  the  world  as  had  the 
ministry  of  Christ,  recorded  at  length  in  the  New  Testament. 
The  doctrines  he  taught  have  been  held  sacred  by  his  followers 
in  all  subsequent  ages. 

The  prophetic  literature  of  the  Old  Testament  had  fore- 
told the  coming  of  some  one  who  should  restore  Israel,  and 
the  ancient  Hebrew  nation  looked  with  expectancy  to  the  birth 
of  one  who  should  raise  their  kingdom  to  the  rank  of  power- 
ful nations  of  the  earth.  By  some,  Christ  was  identified  with 
the  one  whose  coming  the  prophets  had  proclaimed,  and  thus 
a  continuity  was  found  throughout  the  Bible — from  the  epic 
of  creation  in  the  beginning,  to  the  birth  and  teaching  of 
Christ,  and  the  added  records  of  his  apostles.  For  many 
years  the  entire  work  was  spoken  of  as  the  "  Word  of  God," 
and  equal  reverence  given  the  sixty-four  books  which  com- 
pose it.  A  verse  would  be  quoted  from  one  chapter  with  no 
regard  to  its  context  quite  as  freely  as  from  another.  Sen- 
tences would  be  extracted  from  primitive  Hebrew  law  and  put 
side  by  side  with  portions  of  Christ's  Sermon  on  the  Mount, 
or  Paul's  letters  to  mission  churches.  Finally  scholars  began 
to  exclaim  against  such  crude  and  literal  interpretation  of  the 
Scriptures.  "  Here,"  they  exclaimed,  "  is  a  book  embodying 
legends  current  among  a  Semitic  people  twenty-five  hundred 
years  before  the  birth  of  Christ ;  there  are  prayers  and  hymns 


428  THB  WORIJ)'S   PROGRESS. 

of  praise  composed  at  varying  periods  and  finally  brought 
together  into  one  collection;  and  once  again,  here  is  a  series 
of  letters  written  by  early  preachers  of  the  gospel  to  their 
outlying  churches,  and  you  are  culling  a  stanza  here,  a  verse 
there,  and  a  sentence  in  a  third  place,  as  though  they  were 
of  equal  value  and  had  been  written  under  similar  circum- 
stances!" Far  from  welcoming  new  light  upon  the  subject 
of  deep  importance,  a  cry  of  indignation  arose,  from  the  clergy 
as  well  as  laymen.  It  was  argued  that  a  scientific  study  of  the 
Bible  would  be  sure  to  detract  from  the  force  and  influence 
of  its  teachings,  and  was  in  itself  irreverent.  But  the  spark 
of  Promethean  fire  was  not  destined  to  go  out — the  spirit  of 
investigation  was  abroad.  The  more  scholars  searched  and 
studied,  the  more  they  were  persuaded  that  a  scientific  exposi- 
tion of  the  Bible  would  enhance  rather  than  lessen  its  value. 
They  saw  that  changing  ideas  in  the  book  itself  existed  and 
had  been  passed  over  by  those  who  did  not  understand  them 
and  who  thought  it  their  duty  to  blindly  accept  what  they 
did  not  comprehend;  while  a  broader  conception  was  destined 
to  lead  to  the  establishment  of  profound  religious  truths,  far 
more  satisfying  than  the  earlier  blind  belief. 

At  last  the  facts  these  scholars  derived,  the  methods  they 
applied,  the  conclusions  they  reached,  largely  overcame  pre- 
judices of  long  standing,  and  it  may  safely  be  said  that  to- 
day only  those  people  oppose  a  scientific  study  of  the  Bible 
who  are  themselves  unfamiliar  with  scientific  study  in  other 
fields  of  knowledge. 

With  this  explanation,  the  results  of  careful  investigation 
of  the  Old  Testament  will  henceforth  be  cited  and  used  freely 
with  no  further  comment,  since  by  such  study  alone  can  we 
come  into  a  true  understanding  of  a  wonderful  literature  and 
a  remarkable  people. 

The  word  Bible  means  books,  or  a  library.  A  consider- 
able portion  of  Hebrew  literature  has  herein  been  preserved 
to  us.  Originally  these  productions  were  written  in  the  an- 
cient Hebrew  tongue,  and  had  no  connection  with  one  an- 
other save  that  they  treated  of  the  same  people  at  different 
stages  of  their  development,  and  further,  treated  in  some  form 
— most  of  them,  at  least — of  their  faith.  When  these  writ- 
ings were  first  collected  and  bound  together,  more  books  were 


THE   STORY  OF  THE   HEBREWS.  429 

included  than  at  present.  Since  then  the  collection  has  been 
edited  and  re-edited.  Compilers  have  introduced  notes  in  the 
text  and  assigned  authorship  of  certain  writings  to  those  who 
were  themselves  mere  compilers.  Later  still,  it  became  cus- 
tomary to  write  books  in  verses;  into  this  form  the  contents 
of  the  Scriptures  were  thrown.  Instead  of  a  narrative  being 
given  at  length  it  was  divided  into  verses,  as  in  our  Bibles  at 
present  used.  Instead  of  a  poem  being  reproduced  in  its 
original  form,  or  a  drama  being  divided  by  the  speeches  of  its 
participants,  both  were  cast  into  verses  and  numbered.  Thus 
prose  and  poetry  came  to  have  the  same  appearance. 

"  More  than  fifty  books,  the  production  of  a  large  number 
of  different  authors  representing  periods  of  time  extending 
over  many  centuries,  are  all  comprehended  between  the  covers 
of  a  single  volume.  There  is  no  greater  monument  of  the 
power  of  printing  to  diffuse  thought  than  this  fact,  that  the 
whole  classic  literature  of  one  of  the  world's  greatest  peoples 
can  be  carried  about  in  the  hand  or  pocket. 

"  But  there  is  another  side  to  the  matter.  ■  A  high  price 
has  been  paid  for  this  feat  of  manufacturing  a  portable  litera- 
ture: no  less  a  price  than  the  effacement  from  the  books  of 
the  Bible  of  their  whole  literary  structure.  Where  the  litera- 
ture is  dramatic  there  are  no  names  of  speakers  nor  divisions 
of  speeches;  there  are  no  titles  to  essays  or  poems,  nor  any- 
thing to  mark  where  one  poem  or  discourse  ends  and  another 
begins.  It  is  as  if  the  whole  were  printed  *  solid,'  like  a  news- 
paper without  newspaper  headings.  The  most  familiar  Eng- 
lish literature  treated  in  this  fashion  would  lose  a  great  part 
of  its  literary  interest;  the  writings  of  the  Hebrews  suffer 
still  more  through  our  unfamiliarity  with  many  of  the  literary 
forms  in  which  they  were  cast.  Even  this  statement  does  not 
fully  represent  the  injury  done  to  this  literature  of  the  Bible 
by  the  traditional  shape  in  which  it  is  presented  to  us.  Be- 
tween the  Biblical  writers  and  our  own  times  have  intervened 
ages  in  which  all  interest  in  literary  beauty  was  lost,  and 
philosophic  activity  took  the  form  of  protracted  discussions 
of  brief  sayings  or  *  texts.'  Accordingly  this  solidified  matter 
of  Hebrew  literature  has  been  divided  up  into  single  sentences 
or  *  verses,'  numbered  mechanically  one,  two,  three,  etc.,  and 
thus  the  original  literary  form  has  been  further  obscured.     It 


430  THE  world's  progress. 

is  not  suqjrising  that  to  most  readers  the  Bible  has  become, 
not  a  literature,  but  simply  a  store-house  of  pious  *  texts.' " ' 

We  call  certain  books  of  the  Old  Testament  historical, 
but  this  does  not  mean,  in  this  case,  that  they  were  written 
with  the  sole  object  of  chronicling  the  events  of  Hebrew  pro- 
gress. They  were  at  the  same  time  books  of  devotion,  show- 
ing God's  dealing  with  them,  His  chosen  people. 

Before  the  ninth  or  eighth  century  b.  c,  records  of 
Israel's  past  existed  only  in  snatches  of  song  and  in  traditions 
handed  down  by  word  of  mouth  from  one  generation  to  an- 
other. The  Song  of  Deborah,  preserved  in  the  Book  of 
Judges,  belongs  to  a  remote  period;  the  legends  of  creation, 
common  to  the  Semitic  race,  as  related  in  Genesis  were  cur- 
rent from  time  immemorial.  In  the  eighth  century  before 
Christ  an  effort  was  made  in  the  "  Schools  of  the  Prophets  " 
to  compile  the  history  of  Israel,  but  the  leading  motive  was 
rather  to  illustrate  God's  favor  to  them  in  the  past  by  citing 
instances  familiar  to  them  all,  and  to  prove  that  divine  pro- 
tection had  been  withdrawn  from  them  when  they  had  gone 
astray — as  exemplified  in  their  past,  rather  than  to  leave  for 
future  ages  records  of  their  heroic  deeds  and  victories  and 
civil  administration.  The  result  was  that  the  historical  writ- 
ings prepared  were  based  on  ancient  traditions,  to  be  sure,  but 
reflected  the  religious  beliefs  and  the  normal  ideas  of  the  age 
in  which  they  were  produced. 

The  historical  books  include  Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus, 
Numbers,  Joshua,  Judges,  I.  and  II.  Samuel,  I.  and  II.  Kings, 
Chronicles,  Ezra,  and  Nehemiah.  Other  books,  such  as 
Isaiah,  for  example,  include  historical  matter. 

"  The  first  portion  of  the  history,  the  biblical  Genesis,  gives 
us  what  that  word  implies — the  Gradual  Formation  of  the 
Chosen  Nation.  The  next  section  on  the  Exodus  (the  biblical 
Bxodiis,  Leviticus,  Numbers),  the  Emigration  of  the  Chosen 
People  to  the  Land  of  Promise;  with  migration  goes  the 
gradual  evolution  into  an  organized  nation,  and  the  massing 
at  this  point  of  legal  documents  makes  the  Constitutional  His- 
tory of  Israel.  Under  the  name  of  The  Judges  (the  biblical 
Joshua,  Judges,  part  of  Samuel)  we  next  distinguish  the  Grand 
Transition :    a  people  starting  with  theocracy,  the  government 

1  Biblical  Masterpieces,  Moulton.  Intro. 


THE   STORY   OF   THE    HEBREWS.  43I 

of  an  invisible  God,  comes  to  accept  the  rule  of  visible  kings 
copied  from  nations  around.  But  precisely  at  the  time  these 
kings  begin  there  is  established  a  regular  order  of  '  prophets,' 
or  interpreters  for  God,  representing  the  old  idea  of  theocracy : 
the  fourth  period  of  the  history  may  be  named  as  The  Kings 
and  The  Prophets,  a  regular  Government  of  Kings  tempered 
by  an  Opposition  of  Prophets.  Then  comes  the  Exile:  the 
witnessing  of  Israel  for  Jehovah  has  to  be  carried  on  in  the 
land  of  strangers.  There  return  from  exile,  not  the  whole 
people,  but  only  those  who  are  devoted  to  the  service  of  God ; 
not  the  Hebrew  Nation,  hut  the  Jewish  Church :  and  the  final 
section  is  thus  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  The  Chronicles. 
The  spirit  of  the  history  is  throughout  made  emphatic  by  story, 
or  at  times  by  fable  or  song.  But  in  addition  to  the  formal 
historic  books  we  have  to  note  two  others : 

"  Deuteronomy  gives  us  the  Orations  and  Songs  of  Moses, 
emphasizing  the  crisis  of  the  leader's  Farewell  to  Israel.  And 
in  Isaiah  we  find  a  certain  dramatic  work,  which,  in  con- 
nection with  the  deliverance  from  exile,  reads  a  meaning  into 
events  such  as  strikes  a  unity  through  the  whole  career  of 
the  chosen  people :  it  is  an  Epilogue  to  the  History  of  Israel." 

The  Talmud  has  been  mentioned  as  a  second  source  of 
Hebrew  history.  The  word  itself  means  literally  "  learning," 
or  "teaching."  It  is  the  name  given  a  collection  of  Hebrew 
writings  which  were  written  primarily  to  explain  and  exem- 
plify Jewish  law.  Two  Talmuds  were  prepared,  one  in  Baby- 
lon— known  as  the  Babylonian  Talmud,  or  the  Talmud 
of  the  Eastern  land;  the  other  written  in  Jerusalem, 
known  as  the  Talmud  of  the  Western  land.  They  were  kept 
in  the  temples  and  added  to  and  continued  by  rabbis  through 
the  first  five  centuries  after  the  Christian  era.  The  interest 
in  them  for  the  historian  today  centers  around  the  traditions 
and  legends  introduced,  these  having  been  current  among  the 
Hebrews  generations  earlier.  The  Talmud  is  rich  in  folklore, 
and  so  possesses  relative  value  from  a  historical  standpoint. 

Third  among  Hebrew  sources  we  have  noted  the  Writings 
of  Josephus.  Josephus  was  a  Jewish  priest  who  lived  in  the 
first  century  after  Christ.  Not  only  was  he  himself  a  priest 
but  for  twenty-four  generations  before  him  his  forefathers 
had  presided  in  the  temple.     During  his  life,  Palestine  was 


432  TH^  worIvD's  progress. 

held  by  the  Romans,  and  he  wrote  the  "  Antiquities  of  the 
Jews,"  and  a  history  of  the  Jewish  War,  to  acquaint  the  people 
of  his  day  with  the  story  of  his  people.  He  claims  to  have 
found  his  material  in  the  sacred  books  of  the  temple  and  fre- 
quently explains  at  length  events  merely  mentioned  in  the 
Old  Testament.  His  writings  have  been  valued  both  in 
early  and  recent  times. 

Among  the  sources  elsewhere  obtained,  the  records  of  con- 
temporaneous nations  are  of  first  importance.  The  oppres- 
sion of  the  Israelites  under  the  Egyptian  pharaoh,  for  example, 
is  believed  to  find  confirmation  in  scenes  and  inscriptions 
recently  discovered  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile.  In  our  study 
of  Assyrian  conquest,  we  have  noted  tribute  lists  and  memorials 
celebrating  victories  over  the  Hebrew  kingdoms,  recovered 
among  other  ruins  in  Mesopotamia.  The  king  of  Babylonia 
finally  left  Jerusalem,  the  beautiful  city  of  Palestine,  demol- 
ished and  well  nigh  abandoned.  Thousands  of  her  noblest 
citizens  were  taken  captives  to  Babylon.  This  incident  was 
naturally  chronicled  in  Babylonian  annals.  Similar  instances 
might  be  cited,  but  these  serve  to  show  ways  in  which  material 
for  Hebrew  history  may  be  gleaned  from  the  records  of  nations 
that  flourished  by  her  side. 

Lastly  we  may  note  the  results  of  archaeological  research 
as  supplying  material  for  the  reconstruction  of  Israel's  past. 
In  1883  M.  Naville  opened  a  mound  wherein  was  discovered 
a  portion  of  what  is  supposed  to  have  been  Pithom — one  of 
the  two  "  store-cities,"  built  by  the  Children  of  Israel  while 
in  bondage.  The  bricks  still  remaining  verified  the  story  as 
it  has  come  down  to  us  from  the  Hebrews  themselves,  in  the 
Book  of  Exodus.  The  lower  rows  of  bricks  were  mixed  with 
straw ;  those  laid  in  later  were  kneaded  with  stubble,  and  those 
last  placed  were  formed  simply  of  sun-dried  mud. 

Explorations  have  been  carried  on  recently  in  Jerusalem 
and  elsewhere  in  Palestine,  and  some  important  discoveries 
have  already  been  made. 

In  spite  of  these  various  means,  we  have  scanty  material 
at  best  for  the  reconstruction  of  Hebrew  history.  The 
Hebrews  were  unhistorical  and  did  not  appreciate,  nor  appar- 
ently care  to  preserve,  their  secular  history.  Records  of  price- 
less value  were  allowed  to  perish  and  we  have  today  only  ex* 


rTH^   STORY   OP  THS   HEBREWS. 


433 


tracts  from  them,  or  some  simple  phrase  concerning  them. 
It  was  the  portion  of  Israel  to  tell  the  world  of  her  religion 
and  to  leave  to  others  the  extolling  of  earthly  successes  and 
failures.  The  comments  of  alien  nations  are  unsatisfactory, 
for  their  attitude  was  generally  hostile,  or  at  least,  unsympa- 
thetic. Nevertheless,  while  questions  remain  unanswered  and 
certain  points  disputed  by  authorities,  we  are  able  to  follow 
with  some  degree  of  certainty  the  formation  of  the  Hebrew 
nation  and  its  political  development. 


BIGH  PRIEST. 


434  THE  world's  progress. 

CHAPTER    VIII. 
The  Hebrews  Prior  to  Their  Occupation  of  Canaan. 

Regarding  the  earliest  period  of  Israel's  existence  there 
has  been  wide  difference  of  opinion.  Until  recently  there 
have  been  many  who  have  accepted  literally  the  early  books 
of  the  Old  Testament,  composed  hundreds  of  years  after  the 
events  recorded  took  place,  and  the  product  of  several  writers, 
all  of  whom  were  filled  with  a  desire  to  show  the  favor  of 
God  exemplified  in  every  detail  of  Hebrew  progress.  If  one 
takes  the  position  that  the  history  of  the  Hebrews  is  different 
from  that  of  every  other  people  in  the  world's  history,  if  it 
be  held  that  their  development  cannot  be  traced  as  the  un- 
folding of  all  other  peoples  has  been  traced,  then  there  is 
nothing  more  to  be  said — one  can  merely  chronicle  the  won- 
ders and  marvel.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  one  accepts  the  abso- 
lutely established  historical  fact  that  these  people  began  as 
other  nations  began,  in  a  very  crude  and  primitive  state,  and 
came  slowly  into  enlightenment  as  did  nations  contemporan- 
eous with  them,  then  the  progress  of  the  early  Hebrews  can  be 
similarly  followed.  The  conclusions  which  seem  to  be  best 
substantiated  are  the  ones  we  shall  consider,  noting  at  the 
same  time  that  among  authorities  and  scholars  many  differ- 
ences of  opinion  still  exist. 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  about  1500  b.  c.  a  company 
of  Semitics,  originally  inhabiting  Arabia,  but  for  some  years 
settlers  in  Mesopotamia,  set  out  from  the  Euphrates  valley — 
probably  from  Ur — and  journeyed  westward.  The  name 
Abraham  is  the  one  tradition  gives  as  the  leader  of  this  com- 
pany, which  after  the  fashion  of  nomads,  sought  new  pas- 
tures in  districts  less  crowded  than  those  of  Chaldea.  Among 
those  who  attached  themselves  to  this  migration  appear  to 
have  been  the  ancestors  of  the  tribes  later  known  as  the 
Moabites,  Ammonites  and  Edomites.  By  slow  stages  this 
band  of  emigrants  passed  into  Syria  and  reached  at  length 
the  country  we  know  as  Palestine.  At  that  time  it  was  known 
as  Canaan,  and  was  the  home  of  Semitics  more  or  less  closely 


THE    STORY   OF   THE    HEBREWS.  435 

related  to  the  people  we  know  as  Phoenicians.  The  Canaanites 
and  Phcenicians  are  often  identified.  As  a  matter  of  fact  tlie 
Canaanites  were  Phoenicians  who  occupied  the  country 'dis- 
tricts and,  save  for  a  common  heritage,  had  little  in  .-ominon 
with  those  merchantmen  who  filled  the  great  sea-ports  of 
Phoenicia. 

The  Moabites  and  Ammonites  immediately  settled  the 
most  fertile  places  in  the  plateaus  of  the  Eastern  Range,  and 
continued  the  sheep-raising  and  cattle  grazing  to  which' they 
had  long  been  accustomed.  The  Edomites  also  found  homes 
for  themselves.  The  few  followers  of  Abraham  appear  to 
have  continued  their  life  as  tent-dwellers  in  the  southern  part 
of  Canaan, 

There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  the  existence  of  this  ancient 
hero  of  the  Jewish  people,  whose  name  is  preserved  in  the  two 
forms  of  Abram  and  Abraham.  It  was  natural  that  various 
stories  from  later  periods  should  be  attached  to  his  name,  but 
in  himself  and  his  fellow  wanderers  we  have  the  beginnings  of 
the  Hebrews.  The  story  of  their  wanderings  along  the 
Euphrates  and  thence  on  to  Palestine  is  typical  of  the  manner 
in  which  nomadic  bands  skirted  the  borders  of  Babylonian 
culture  to  make  settlements  of  their  own. 

In  the  course  of  a  few  generations  this  Abrahamic 
settlement  in  Palestine  became  several  tribes,  named  after 
successive  leaders,  all  represented  in  Genesis  as  immediate 
descendants  of  Abraham.  Later  tradition  of  these  early  days 
condensed  the  time  and  the  characters  to  the  life  of  a  single 
family.  Thus  the  stories  surrounding  the  lives  of  the  patri- 
archal heroes  Abraham,  Isaac  and  Jacob  are  the  visualization 
of  the  characteristics  of  the  heroic  age  of  the  Hebrews. 

The  descendants  of  the  tribes  represented  by  these  names 
finally  journeyed  further  south,  settling  in  a  fertile  district 
northeast  of  the  delta  of  the  Nile  and  known  by  the  name 
of  Goshen.  Famine  was  responsible  for  this  migration  and 
the  closer  alliance  of  the  tribes  under  the  general  term  of  "the 
children  of  Israel." 

When  these  Israelites  first  came  into  Egypt,  a  great 
Semitic  upheaval  had  taken  place  in  the  ancient  world,  and 
there  seem  to  be  reasons  for  thinking  that  the  welcome  given 
them  was  due  to  the  fact  that  a  Semitic  pharaoh  ruled  in 

» History  of  the  People  of  Israel ;  Cornill,  30. 


43^  THK  world's  progress. 

Egypt.  In  any  event,  they  lived  peaceably  for  two  or  three 
generations — how  much  longer  we  do  not  know — when  the 
aspect  of  matters  changed.  The  native  rulers  were  restored 
and  because  Egypt  was  having  difficulty  with  tribes  in  West- 
ern Asia,  foreigners  within  her  immediate  borders  were  looked 
upon  with  suspicion.  A  large  number  of  laborers  were  needed 
to  carry  on  gigantic  building  projects,  and  the  Israelites  were 
suddenly  impressed  as  public  slaves,  and  set  to  work  under 
armed  guards. 

It  was  against  all  nature  that  desert  nomads,  accustomed 
to  the  freedom  of  the  wide  world,  would  long  endure  this  servi- 
tude. The  instincts  of  their  ancestors  would  live  on  for  many 
generations,  although  temporarily  overpowered.  After  being 
ground  down  by  the  heel  of  the  oppressor  for  a  considerable 
number  of  years,  they  were  at  length  incited  by  Moses  to 
depart  for  the  land  still  known  to  them  by  stories  handed  down 
from  father  to  son — the  land  of  Canaan. 

Moses,  by  birth  a  Hebrew,  had  been  educated  in  the 
family  of  an  Egyptian,  but  became  an  outlaw  upon  killing  an 
Egyptian  while  defending  one  of  his  own  kinsmen.  Escaping 
to  the  land  of  the  Midianites,  he  had  drunk  in  the  air  of  free- 
dom and  the  instincts  of  his  forefathers  were  stimulated  into 
activity.  Learning  from  his  priest  father-in-law  in  Midian  he 
accepted  Jahweh  as  his  God.  He  grieved  over  the  condition 
to  which  his  people  had  fallen,  and  brooding  over  it,  ex- 
perienced a  divine  commission  to  restore  them  to  freedom. 
Rallying  them  in  the  name  of  Jahweh,  he  led  them  out  of  the 
land  of  bondage.  According  to  the  Hebrew  account,  Egypt 
was  at  that  particular  time  stricken  by  plagues,  and  the  people, 
naturally  superstitious,  attributed  their  afflictions  to  the  for- 
eigners within  their  land.  So  incensed  against  them  did  they 
become  that  the  ruler,  in  a  moment  of  weakness,  consented  to 
their  exodus.  No  sooner  had  they  departed,  however,  than  he 
bethought  him  of  the  laborers  he  had  lost,  and  dispatched  the 
flower  of  his  cavalry  to  compel  their  return. 

A  wind,  blowing  fiercely,  made  a  fording  of  the  Sea  pos- 
sible for  the  Israelites,  but  the  cavalry,  sent  in  pursuit,  was  en- 
gulfed and  lost.  This  incident  was  seized  upon  as  a  mark  of 
divine  favor  by  these  disheartened  people,  who  saw  direct  in- 
tervention of  Jahweh  in  their  behalf.     Thus  the  power  of  a 


tut   STORY  0^  rut   HHBREWS.  437 

supreme  God  was  impressed  upon  their  minds  as  long  years 
of  religious  instruction  could  never  have  impressed  it. 

For  forty  years  the  Children  of  Israel  wandered  in  the 
desert,  loitering  here  and  there,  finding  their  way  between 
hostile  tribes.  During  these  years  the  figure  of  Moses  stands 
forth  with  unfailing  strength  and  courage.  The  people  he  had 
led  thither  were  mere  children,  rendered  dependent  and  un- 
steadfast  by  their  long  period  of  servitude.  When  difficulties 
beset  them,  they  did  not  hestiate  to  turn  upon  their  deliverer 
and  reproach  him,  and  to  wish  often  to  return  to  the  land  they 
had  recently  left,  where  food  was  always  forthcoming,  even 
though  at  the  expense  of  liberty  and  self-respect.  But  Moses, 
with  staunch  heart  and  great  patience,  slowly  organized  them 
into  a  religious  body,  finding  unity  for  them  in  the  one  God, 
Jahweh.  Meanwhile  a  new  generation  was  growing  up  among 
them;  sons  and  daughters  who  were  born  in  the  air  of  free- 
dom, assimilated  new  ideas  more  readily,  were  more  steadfast 
in  their  purpose,  and  grew  into  greater  self-reliance  than  their 
fathers  knew.  With  this  new  spirit  manifest,  we  see  the  possi- 
bilities of  a  dawning  nation,  and  a  more  promising  future. 

Not  long  before  the  exodus,  incoming  Philistines  pressed 
the  Canaanites  farther  east,  and  they  in  turn  displaced  the 
Moabites  and  Ammonites  from  their  fertile  homes  in  the 
Eastern  Range.  These  Semitics  remembered  their  old  allies, 
now  in  the  desert,  and  besought  them  for  aid.  The  Israelites 
helped  them  defeat  the  Canaanites  and  then  appropriated  the 
fertile  places  for  themselves.  Soon,  however,  increasing  num- 
bers made  it  necessary  to  seek  wider  room,  and  the  tribe  of 
Judah  crossed  the  Jordan  and  settled  the  tableland  which  after- 
wards bore  its  name.  This  settlement  was  not  made  with- 
out great  effort,  for  the  earlier  inhabitants  held  tenaciously  to 
the  land.  The  tribes  of  Simeon  and  Levi  tried  to  do  like- 
wise, but  their  treachery  made  them  victims  to  the  revenge 
of  the  Canaanites.  The  Levites  disappeared  as  a  tribe,  but  were 
perpetuated  as  a  priestly  order.  The  Simeonites  became^  ab- 
sorbed with  the  tribe  of  Judah.  Reuben  and  Gad  remained 
east  of  the  Jordan,  and  the  remaining  tribes  united  under 
Joshua  and  made  an  atta<:k  upon  the  central  part  of  Canaan. 
Jericho  fell  into  their  hands,  also  Ai  and  Bethel.  When  these 
most  exposed  places  fell  to  their  portion,  the  mhabitants  of 


438  THE  world's  progress. 

Gibeon,  a  Canaanite  stronghold,  grew  alarmed  for  their  own 
safety  and  craftily  sought  a  treaty  with  the  invaders.  This 
becoming  known  among  the  league  of  Canaanite  cities,  banded 
together  to  drive  out  the  Israelites,  the  members  of  the  league 
were  so  incensed  that  they  marched  against  the  walls  of  Gibeon 
for  thus  deserting  their  common  cause.  The  citizens  of  Gibeon 
appealed  to  the  Hebrews  for  aid,  and  according  to  their  treaty, 
Joshua  led  his  army  out  to  meet  the  forces  of  the  besiegers. 

The  Hebrews  were  accustomed  to  hand-to-hand  conflicts, 
and  to  the  heights;  the  Canaanites  fought  wherever  possible 
with  chariots,  and  naturally  preferred  the  plains.  At  first  it 
seemed  as  though  the  advantage  belonged  to  the  Canaanites, 
for  they  carried  the  battle  into  the  plain,  and  had  strong  cities 
behind  them.  Nevertheless,  a  sudden  rain  made  the  earth  so 
soft  that  their  chariots  availed  them  little,  and  when  the  rain 
changed  to  hail,  their  ranks  w^ere  thrown  into  confusion. 

The  book  of  Jashar,  an  ancient  Hebrew  work,  has  not  been 
preserved  but  was  apparently  made  up  of  old  ballads  and  war 
songs.  A  fragment  repeated  in  the  book  of  Joshua  recounts 
that  Joshua,  the  famous  Hebrew  warrior,  commanded  the 
sun  and  moon  to  stand  still  until  the  battle  ended.  Some  in- 
fer that  he  wished  daylight  to  remain  until  the  battle  could 
be  fought  out ;  others  hold  that  he  wanted  the  darkness  of 
the  storm  to  continue,  to  further  discomfit  the  Canaanites. 

"  Sun,  stand  thou  still  upon  Gibeon ; 
And  thou.  Moon,  in  the  valley  of  Ajalon. 
And  the  sun  stood  still,  and  the  moon  stayed. 
Until  the  nation  had  avenged  themselves  of  their  enemies."* 

Victory  belonged  to  the  Israelites,  and  the  seven  tribes 
took  possession  of  trans-Jordan   regions. 

"  But  this  does  not  mean  that  Israel  was  in  full  possession 
of  the  land:  by  far  the  best  and  most  fertile  portions  of  it, 
and  especially  the  majority  of  the  cities,  whose  strong  fortifi- 
cations made  them  impregnable  to  the  primitive  military  skill 
of  the  Israelites,  remained  in  possession  of  the  Canaanites ;  it 
was  chiefly  the  woody  mountain  chains  of  northern  and  middle 
Palestine  that  had  come  into  the  power  of  Israel,  and  the 

2  Joshuia,  10. 12. 


i 


The  story  ov  the  HEBREWS.  439 

Canaanites  had  partly  to  be  subdued  by  force  and  partly  to  be 
peacefully  absorbed— a  long  and  difficult  task."* 

"  Then  sang  Moses  and  the  Children  of  Israel  this  song 
unto  the  Lord : 

"I  will  sing  unto  the  Lord,  for  he  hath  triumphed  gloriously: 
The  horse  and  his  rider  hath  he  thrown  into  the  sea. 
The  Lord  is  my  strength  and  song, 
And  he  is  become  my  salvation: 
This  is  my  God,  and  I  will  praise  him ; 
My  father's  God,  and  I  will  exalt  him. 

(1)     Sung  by  Men. 

"The  Lord  is  a  man  of  war: 

The  Lord  is  his  name. 
Pharaoh's  chariots  and  his  host  hath  he  cast  into  the  sea: 

And  his  chosen  captains  are  sunk  in  the  Red  Sea.   ' 
The  deeps  cover  them: 

They  went  down  into  the  depths  like  a  stone. 

Sung  by  Women. 

"Sing  ye  to  the  Lord,  for  he  hath  triumphed  gloriously: 
The  horse  and  his  rider  hath  he  thrown  into  the  sea. 

(2)     Men. 

"Thy  right  hand,  O  Lord,  is  glorious  in  power, 

Thy  right  hand,  O  Lord,  dasheth  in  pieces  the  enemy. 
And  in  the  greatness  of  thine  excellency  thou  overthrowest 

Them  that  rise  up  against  thee : 
Thou  sendest  forth  thy  wrath,  it  consumeth  them  as  stubble 
And  with  the  blast  of  thy  nostrils  the  waters  were  piled  up, 

The  floods  stood  upright  as  an  heap; 

The  deeps  were  congealed  in  the  heart  of  the  sea. 
The  enemy  said,  I  will  pursue,  I  will  overtake,  I  will  divide 
the  spoil: 

My  lust  shall  be  satisfied  upon  them; 

I  will  draw  my  sword,  my  hand  shall  destroy  them 
Thou  didst  blow  with  thy  wind,  the  sea  covered  them: 

They  sank  as  lead  in  the  mighty  waters. 


«  History  of  People  of  Israel,  47. 


440  thS  wori^d's  progress. 

IVomen. 

"  Sing  ye  to  the  Lord,  for  he  hath  triumphed  gloriously  t 
The  horse  and  his  rider  hath  he  thrown  into  the  sea. 

(3)      Men. 

"  Who  is  like  unto  thee,  O  Lord,  among  the  Gods  ? 

Who  is  like  thee,  glorious  in  holiness, 

Fearful  in  praises,  doing  wonders? 
Thou  stretchest  out  thy  right  hand. 

The  earth  swallowed  them. 
Thou  in  thy  mercy  hast  led  the  people  which  thou  hast  re- 
deemed : 

Thou  hast  glided  them  in  thy  strength  to  thy  holy  habitation. 
The  peoples  have  heard,  they  tremble : 

Till  thy  people  pass  over,  O  Lord, 

Till  the  people  pass  over  which  thou  hast  purchased. 
Thou  shalt  bring  them  in,  and  plant  them  in  the  mountain  of 
thine  inheritance, 

The  place,  O  Lord,  which  thou  hast  made  for  thee  to  dwell  in, 

The  sanctuary,  O  Lord,  which  thy  hands  have  established. 
The  Lord  shall  reign  forever  and  ever. 

Women. 

"  Sing  ye  to  the  Lord,  for  he  hath  triumphed  gloriously : 
The  horse  and  his  rider  hath  he  thrown  into  the  sea." 

— Modern  Reader's  Bible. 


TH^  STORY  OF  THE   HEBREWS.  441 


CHAPTER   IX. 
The  Era  of  the  Judges. 

As  we  have  seen,  Joshua's  victory  left  the  conquest  of 
Canaan  but  begun.  It  so  happened  that  the  great  powers 
were  too  absorbed  with  their  own  affairs  to  expand  by  con- 
quest, so  the  earlier  inhabitants  of  Palestine  and  the  Hebrews 
were  left  to  fight  out  their  difficulties  as  best  they  might. 
For  some  generations  after  the  entrance  of  the  Israelites  into 
Canaan,  confusion  and  disorder  ruled.  The  invaders  would 
win  the  heights  in  a  given  region,  while  around  them  in  the 
plains  and  valleys,  flourished  hostile  clans,  often  harassing 
and  threatening  their  settlements.  Years  of  peace  would  settle 
over  the  land,  and  the  two  peoples — Israelites  and  Canaanites 
— would  intermarry,  when  again  the  old  hatred  would  break 
out  anew. 

The  period  following  the  death  of  Joshua  has  been  called 
the  "  Era  of  the  Judges."  The  simple  statement  of  the  an- 
cient Hebrew  chronicler  makes  clear  the  situation :  "  And 
there  was  no  king  in  Israel ;  each  man  did  that  which  was  right 
in  his  own  eyes."  Our  knowledge  of  this  age  is  derived  chiefly 
from  the  Book  of  Judges,  which  contains  some  of  the  earliest 
records  of  the  Israelites.  However,  the  material  herein  con- 
tained has  not  come  down  to  us  first  hand.  A  prophet  of  later 
times  selected  such  material  as  suited  his  purpose  from  records 
which  were  accessible  to  him.  The  writer  or  writers  of  the 
Book  of  Judges  desired  to  inculcate  religious  truths — not  to 
recount  historical  events.  Such  pictures  of  the  life  during 
those  years  which  followed  Hebrew  occupation  of  Canaan  as 
seemed  best  were  fitted  into  phrases  like  these :  "  And  the  peo- 
ple of  Israel  did  that  which  was  evil  in  the  sight  of  Jahweh,  and 
Jahweh  delivered  them  into  the  hands  of  their  enemies." 
"  The  people  of  Israel  cried  unto  Jahweh  and  He  raised  up 
to  them  a  deliverer,  and  the  land  had  rest."  It  seems  to  have 
been  fortunately  the  case  that  the  older  material  was  incor- 
porated into  the  phrases  with  little  change,  and  from  it  one 


442  THE  world's  progress. 

is  able  to  get  a  very  fair  idea  of  the  stage  of  progress  to 
which  the  Hebrews  had  then  arrived. 

Thirteen  Judges  are  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament,  and 
there  were  surely  many  more  whose  names  were  not  recorded. 
In  times  of  emergency,  danger,  attack  or  oppression,  a  clan, 
or  several  clans,  one  tribe  or  possibly  two  or  three  tribes,  would 
voluntarily  unite  under  some  chosen  chieftain,  whose  duties 
and  powers  were  indefinite.  If  he  were  able  to  deliver  them 
in  their  distress,  they  acknowledged  him  as  their  leader  so 
long  as  he  lived.  When  a  similar  occasion  arose,  it  was  met 
in  a  similar  way.  Since  differences  between  clans,  disputes 
between  individuals,  and  various  questions  were  referred  to 
this  chief  for  settlement,  later  writers  named  these  men  from 
this  duty  of  referees.  Judges.  Their  earliest  title  of 
"  deliverer  "  was  more  expressive.  The  story  of  the  several 
recorded  judges  may  be  read  in  the  biblical  book  bearing  that 
name.  We  shall  consider  the  work  of  three — not  necessarily 
the  most  important  in  Israel's  history. 

Matters  had  become  most  threatening  in  Canaan.  The 
Canaanites  had  united  for  a  final  reduction  of  Israel  and  were 
led  by  Sisera.  This  chief  was  victorious  and  seemed  about 
to  overcome  the  Hebrew  tribes.  The  very  existence  of  Israel 
was  in  gravest  danger.  The  highways  were  unsafe,  for  these 
were  held  by  the  Canaanites  who  were  preparing  for  a  final 
stand.  At  this  juncture  Deborah,  an  inspired  prophetess, 
called  upon  Barak,  a  chieftain  of  the  north,  to  deliver  the 
people.  Intermarriage  between  the  Israelites  and  Canaanites 
had  become  so  common  -that  it  was  useless  to  attempt  to  rally 
the  early  tribes — early  distinctions  were  no  longer  closely 
drawn.  So  Deborah  called  on  all  who  worshipped  Jahweh 
to  rally  in  His  cause.  The  old  enthusiasm  was  rekindled,  and 
the  Canaanites  suffered  a  great  defeat.  Their  king  Sisera 
escaped  and  took  refuge  in  the  tent  of  a  peasant  woman. 
Trusting  to  her  hospitality,  he  partook  of  refreshment  she 
offered  him.  Asking  simply  for  water,  she  gave  him  milk. 
When  he  fell  asleep  for  a  brief  rest,  she  drove  a  tent-pin 
through  his  head,  thus  killing  him.  It  has  been  fully  observed 
that  "  only  in  an  age  of  tents  could  such  a  deed  have  been 
thus  extolled."  The  Canaanites  never  recovered  the  loss  of 
that  day's  defeat,  and  their  strength  was  permanently  broken. 


The  story  of  the  Hebrews. 


443 


The  Song  of  Deborah,  recorded  in  the  Book  of  Judges,  is 
one  of  the  earhest  writings  in  the  Old  Testament.  It  has 
recently  been  thrown  again  into  its  original  verse  form,  and 
rings  clear  of  an  early  age,  echoing  the  spirit  of  a  crude  but 
vigorous  race. 

Deborah's  Song. 

Men.  For  that  the  leaders  took  the  lead  in  Israel — 

Women.     For  that  the  people  oflfered  themselves  willingly — 
All.  Bless  ye  the  Lord! 

Prelude. 

Men.  Hear,  O  ye  kings — 

Women.         Give  ear,  O  ye  princes — 

Men.  I,  even  I,  will  sing  unto  the  Lord — 

Women.        I  will  sing  praises  to  the  Lord,  the  God  of  Israel. 

All.   .         Lord,  when  thou  wentest  forth  out  of  Seir, 

When  thou  marchedst  out  of  the  field  of  Edom, 
The  earth  trembled,  the  heavens  also  dropped, 

Yea,  the  clouds  dropped  water. 
The  mountain  flowed  down  at  the  presence  of  the  Lord. 
Even  yon  Sinai  at  the  presence  of  the  Lord,  the 
God  of  Israel. 

I.    The  Desolation. 

Men.  In  the  days  of  Shamgar,  the  son  of  Anath, 

In  the  days  of  Jael, 
The   highways   were   unoccupied, 

And  the  travellers  walked  through  byways; 
The  rulers  ceased  in  Israel, 
They  ceased — 
Women.    Until  that  I,  Deborah,  arose, 

That  I  arose  a  mother  in  Israel. 
They  chose  new  gods; 

Then  was  war  in  the  gates: 
Was  there  a  shield  or  spear  seen 
Among   forty  thousand   in   Israel? 
Men.  My  heart  is  toward  the  governors  of  Israel — 

Women.     Ye  that  oflFered  yourselves  willingly  among  the  people— 
All.  Bless  ye  the  Lordi 


444  "m^  WORI^D  S   PROGRESS. 

Men.  Tell  of  it,  ye  that  ride  on  white  asses. 

Ye  that  sit  on  rich  carpets, 

And  ye  that  walk  by  the  way: — 
Women.    Far  from  the  noise  of  archers, 

In  the  places  of  drawing  water: — 
All.  There  shall  they  rehearse  the  righteous  acts  of  the 

Lord, 
Even  the  righteous  acts  of  his  rule  in  Israel. 

II.    The  Muster. 

All.  The  people  of  the  Lord  went  down  to  the  gates — 

Men.  Awake,  awake,  Deborah, 

Awake,  awake,  utter  a  song: — 
Women.    Arise,  Barak, 

And  lead  thy  captivity  captive,  thou  son  of  Abinoan. 
All.  Then  came  down  a  remnant  of  the  nobles. 

The  people  of  the  Lord  came  down  for  me  against 
the  Mighty. 
Women.     Out  of  Ephraim  came  down  they  whose  root  is  in 

Amalek — 
Men.  After  thee,  Benjamin,  among  thy  peoples  — 

Women.     Out  of  Machir  came  down  the  governors — 
Men.  And  out  of  Zubulum  they  that  handle  the  marshal's 

staff— 
Women.    And  the  princes  of  Issachar  were  with  Deborah — 
Men.  So  was  Issachar,  so  was  Barak : 

All.  Into  the  valley  they  rushed  forth  at  his  feet. 

Men.  By  the  water  courses  of  Reuben 

There  were  great  resolves  of  heart. 
Women.     Why  satest  thou  among  the  sheepfolds. 

To  hear  the  pipings  for  the  flocks? 
Men.  At  the  watercourses  of  Reuben 

There  were  great  searchings  of  heart! 
Women.     Gilead  abode  beyond  Jordan — 
Men.  And  Dan,  why  did  he  remain  in  ships? 

Women.     Ashur  sat  still  at  the  haven  of  the  sea. 

And  abode  by  his  creeks. 
Men.  Zebulum  was  a  people  that  jeoparded  their  lives  unto 

the  death. 

And  Naphtali  upon  the  high  places  of  the  field. 


THE   STORY   OF   THE    HEBREWS. 

III.    The  Battle  and  the  Rout. 

Men.  The  kings  came  and  fought; 

Then  fought  the  kings  of  Canaan, 
In  Taanach  by  the  waters  of  Megiddo: — 
They  took  no  gain  of  money. 
Women.     They  fought  from  heaven. 

The  stars  in  their  courses  fought  against  Sisera. 
The  river  Kishon  swept  them  away, — 
That  ancient  river,  the  river  Kishon! 
Men.  O  my  soul,  march  on  with  strength! 

Then  did  the  horsehoofs  stamp 
By  reason  of  the  prancings, 

The  prancings  of  their  strong  ones. 
Women.     Curse  ye,  Meroz,  said  the  angel  of  the  Lord, 
Curse  ye  bitterly  the  inhabitants  thereof; 
Because  they  came  not  to  the  help  of  the  Lord, 
To  the  help  of  the  Lord  against  the  mighty! 


445 


IV.    The  retribution. 


Men. 


Blessed  above  women  shall  Jael  be  the  wife  of  Heber 
the   Kenite, 

Blessed  shall  she  be  above  women  in  the  tent! 
He  asked  water,  and  she  gave  him  milk; 

She  brought  him  butter  in  a  lordly  dish. 
She  put  her  hand  to  the  nail, 

And  her  right  hand  to  the  workman's  hammer ; 
And  with  the  hammer  she  smote  Sisera. 

She  smote  through  his  head, 
Yea,  she  pierced  and  struck  through  his  temples. 

At  her  feet  he  bowed,  he  fell,  he  lay: 

At  her  feet  he  bowed,  he  fell: 
When  he  bowed,  there  he  fell  down  dead! 
Women.     Through  the  window  she  looked  forth,  and  cried. 

The  mother  of  Sisera,  through  the  lattice, 
"Why  is  his  chariot  so  long  coming? 

Why  tarry  the  wheels  of  his  chariots?" 
Her  wise  ladies  answered  her, 

Yea,  she  returned  answer  to  herself, 
"  Have  they  not  found. 

Have  they  not  divided  the  spoils? 


446  THS  world's  progress. 

A  damsel,  two  damsels  to  every  man; 
To  Sisera  a  spoil  of  divers  colors, 
A  spoil  of  divers  colors  of  embroidery. 

Of  divers  colors  of  embroidery  on  both  sides,  on 
the  necks  of  the  spoil ! " 
All.  So  let  all  thine  enemies  perish,  O  Lord: 

But  let  them  that  love  him  be  as  the  sun  when  he 
goeth  forth  in  his  might! 

Having  overcome  the  Canaanites,  the  Israelites  were  not 
destined  to  long  enjoy  peace.  Their  own  kinsmen,  the 
Ammonites  and  Moabites  looked  with  envy  upon  their  good 
fortune  in  winning  such  desirable  land  and  tried  now  to  rob 
them  of  it.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  Israelites,  Moa- 
bites and  Ammonites  had  all  a  common  ancestry,  they  were 
never  on  that  account  restrained  from  plundering  one  an- 
other's territories.  Forced  to  take  a  definite  stand  against 
them,  the  Hebrews  cast  about  for  a  leader.  Jephthah  was 
named.  He  was  an  outlavr,  a  bold  border  man,  who  belonged 
to  the  Hebrew  race,  and  his  bravery  was  unquestioned.  When 
besought,  he  agreed  to  drive  out  the  Ammonites  on  one  con- 
dition only :  that  he  be  acknowledged  chieftain  after  the  battle. 
This  being  conceded,  he  led  the  Hebrew  forces.  It  was  in 
keeping  with  his  rough,  reckless  nature  that  he  should  vow 
to  sacrifice  the  first  living  thing  he  met  upon  his  return  were 
he  victorious.  The  Ammonites  were  defeated  and  to  Jeph- 
thah's  utter  consternation,  his  daughter,  his  only  child,  rushed 
forth  to  meet  him.  We  are  told  that  his  vow  was  kept,  and 
thus  we  know  that  human  sacrifices  were  sometimes  offered 
to  Jahweh. 

During  the  era  of  the  Judges,  the  Philistines  on  the  south- 
west began  to  expand,  upon  land  already  settled  by  the  Israel- 
ites. They  overran  the  Plain  of  Sharon,  and  the  Hebrews 
who  had  peopled  the  plain  were  driven  into  the  hills.  This 
crisis  brought  forth  Samson,  one  of  the  chiefs  who  essayed 
to  stay  the  power  of  these  new  enemies.  He  was  a  simple 
child  of  nature — a  giant  in  strength,  a  weakling  'w  steadf^^ 
purpose.  He  lacked  the  capacity  to  plan  a  campaign  and 
execute  it.  The  stories  of  his  prodigious  power,  his  feats 
of  physical  endurance,  are  too  well  known  to  require  repeti- 


THE   STORY   OF   THE   HEBREWS.  447 

tion.  They  were  lauded  by  his  admirers  and  delighted  in  by 
the  Israelites  when  directed  against  their  enemies,  but  his 
blows  were  invariably  given  to  avenge  personal  wrongs,  and 
he  left  his  people  no  farther  on  their  way  against  the  Philis- 
tines than  he  found  them. 

The  great  difficulty  during  this  period  was  that  there  was 
no  tendency  to  hold  long  together.  "  Israel  had  within  itself 
the  worst  of  enemies  and  a  germ  of  destruction.  This  was 
the  proud  sense  of  independence  and  the  strongly-developed 
family  feeling  of  the  nomad,  which  did  not  immediately  vanish 
from  the  national  character  with  the  surrender  of  the  nomadic 
fashion  of  life.  After  the  united  effort  under  Joshua  had  but 
barely  laid  the  foundation,  the  people  again  broke  up  into 
tribes  and  clans,  which  now  aimlessly  sought  new  places  of 
settlement,  each  on  its  own  account  and  unmindful  of  its 
neighbors."  * 

This  tendency  to  fall  apart  was  the  most  dangerous  sign 
of  Israel's  progress,  and  we  shall  see  how  it  lasted  through  her 
history.  Nevertheless,  for  the  time  being  the  lesson  was 
learned  that  only  by  uniting  against  the  enemy  could  victory 
be  won.  The  era  of  the  Judges  so  far  impressed  this  truth 
upon  the  minds  of  the  Hebrews  that  we  note  the  beginnings 
of  Hebrew  unity. 

»Hist.  of  Peonle  of  Israel,  47. 


448  ThB  worIvD's  progress. 


CHAPTER   X. 
The  Morauty  o^  the  Hebrews  Prior  to  The  Kingdom. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  lofty  conceptions  of 
Israel's  later  seers  and  prophets  were  manifest  among  the 
people  from  the  earliest  times.  Quite  the  reverse  was  true. 
Like  all  primitive  people,  the  Hebrews  passed  through  the 
usual  stages  of  development,  religiously  and  morally.  Suffi- 
cient evidence  goes  to  show  that  they  worshipped  many  gods 
in  the  beginning,  as  did  other  Semitics.  Joshua  once  re- 
minded them  of  their  earlier  faith: 

"  Your  fathers  dwelt  on  the  other  side  of  the  flood  in  old 
time,  even  Terah,  the  father  of  Abraham,  and  the  father  of 
Nachor :  and  they  served  other  gods."  * 

"  In  many  respects  doubtless  their  religion  was  closely 
akin  to  that  of  neighboring  Semitic  people.  They  had  their 
sacred  pillars,  trees,  and  other  emblems  of  the  divine  power 
and  presence;  they  carried  with  them  teraphim,  which  were 
apparently  images  venerated  as  household  gods.  In  many  of 
their  beliefs  and  practices  they  did  not  rise  above  the  general 
level  of  their  age."  " 

During  their  long  sojourn  in  Egypt,  as  might  have  been 
expected,  they  grew  to  worship  Egyptian  gods.  "  Cast  ye 
away  every  man  the  abominations  of  his  eyes,  and  defile  not 
yourselves  with  the  idols  of  Egypt."  * 

The  explanation  which  has  seemed  to  make  clear  the  unique 
development  of  the  Hebrew  above  other  Semitics,  is  this  one 
— only  recently  offered.  It  is  well-known  that  the  Israelites 
were  originally  henotheists — ^that  is,  they  believed  in  many 
gods — believed  that  many  divinities  were  powerful,  but  they 
gave  allegiance  to  one,  the  god  of  their  tribe.  This  god 
belonged  to  their  tribe,  and  shared  its  successes  and  failures. 
Now  when  Moses  accepted  Jahweh,  probably  in  Midian, 
he  persuaded  the  Israelites  to  forsake  the  gods  they  were  wor- 
shipping and  give  their  homage  to  Jahweh.     At  the  foot  of 

ijoshua,  24,  2.  ^short  Hist,  of  the  Hebrews :  Ottley.  26.  ^Eztkiti, 
20,7. 


THE   STORY   OF  THE)   HEBREWS.  449 

Sinai  he  caused  them  to  make  a  covenant  with  Jahweh:  the 
God  was  to  give  them  protection,  and  they  were  to  worship 
him  alone.  Because  he  was  an  adopted  God  and  not  a  mem- 
ber of  their  tribe,  he  was  bound  to  protect  them  only  when 
they  served  him  faithfully.  The  adopted  God  could  cast  off 
his  adopted  people  if  they  failed  to  fulfill  their  part  of  the 
contract.  The  Hebrews  always  said  that  they  were  a  peculiar 
people.  They  repeatedly  referred  to  the  fact  that  God  could 
cast  them  off  if  they  were  unloyal  to  him.  Such  a  thing  is 
unknown  among  other  nations.  No  other  God  could  cast 
off  his  people;  he  was  one  of  them.  This  explains  also  why 
the  Hebrews  were  always  so  ready  to  abandon  their  God  and 
take  on  the  gods  of  their  neighbors. 

"  In  any  case  it  is  clear  that  Jahweh  was  not  originally  the 
god  of  Israel,  but  only  became  such  in  consequence  of  the 
work  of  Moses  and  of  the  events  of  the  exodus.     .     .     . 

"  Israel's  relation  to  Jahweh  was  unique.  .  .  .  He 
was  not  an  ancestral  god  who  stood  in  a  natural  and  necessary 
relation  to  his  people,  like  the  gods  of  other  Semitic  tribes; 
but  he  was  the  god  of  Sinai  and  of  Midian,  who  had  come  into 
connection  with  Israel  only  through  his  own  free,  moral  choice. 
Israel  belonged  to  him,  not  by  birth,  but  by  election.  Its 
existence  and  its  continuance  were  dependent  upon  his  sov- 
ereign good  pleasure,  and  he  might  cast  it  off  as  easily  as  he 
had  adopted  it.  Under  these  circumstances  he  had  the  right 
to  make  conditions  upon  which  his  favour  should  depend  such 
as  other  gods  could  not  make.  This  fact  does  not  explain 
the  ethical  character  of  the  Mosaic  religion;  it  explains  only 
why  an  ethical  religion  was  promulgated  at  this  particular 
time."  * 

It  is  the  custom  of  all  primitive  people  to  ascribe  their 
early  laws  and  government  to  divine  origin.  This  rule  is 
seldom  varied,  and  was  adhered  to  by  the  ancient  Hebrews. 
Instead  of  conceiving  the  God-Spirit  as  having  endowed  Moses 
with  true  insight,  wise  judgments,  and  high  ideals,  the  Is- 
raelites believed  that  their  Covenant  had  been  dictated,  word 
by  word,  by  Jahweh,  while  it  was  further  claimed  that  tablets 
with  words  inscribed  upon  them  were  given  Moses  by  God 
himself.     As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  earliest  decalogue  differed 

*Early  Hist,  of  Syria  and  Palestine :    Paton,  139, 141. 


450  THE  worIvD's  progress. 

widely  from  the  one  best  known.  The  commandments  first 
given  the  people  after  they  were  led  forth  from  Egypt  were 
probably  the  ones  recorded  in  the  thirty-fourth  chapter  of 
Exodus,  and  were  something  like  these: 

1.  Thou  shalt  worship  no  other  god. 

2.  Thou  shalt  make  thee  no  molten  gods. 

3.  The  feast  of  unleaven  bread  shalt  thou  keep. 

4.  Every  firstling  is  mine. 

5.  Thou  shalt  keep  the  feast  of  the  weeks. 

6.  Thou  shalt  keep  the  feast  of  the  ingathering  at  the  end  of 

the  year. 

7.  Thou  shalt  not  offer  the  blood  of  my  sacrifice  with  leaven. 

8.  The  fat  of  my  feast  shall  not  be  left  over  until  the  morning. 

9.  Thou  shalt  bring  the  best  of  the  first  fruits  of  thy  land  to 

the  house  of  Jehovah  thy  God. 
10.     Thou  shalt  not  seethe  a  kid  in  his  mother's  milk. 

Because  Moses  was  known  to  the  Israelites  as  a  law-giver, 
laws  passed  long  after  his  death  were  attributed  to  him,  quite 
as  laws  which  came  into  being  years  after  the  death  of  Ham- 
murabit  in  Babylon  were  probably  attributed  to  this  great 
national  law-giver. 

A  company  of  slaves,  escaping  from  servitude  after  sennng 
for  two  or  three  generations,  and  having  possessed  but  a  crude 
civilization  previous  to  that  experience,  would  require  only  the 
simplest  laws,  and  any  one  reading  the  various  rules  and  regu- 
lations attributed  to  this  period  will  easily  see  how  crude  was 
the  stage  of  development  which  made  such  instruction  neces- 
sary. As  time  went  on,  and  the  people  advanced  and  became 
more  enlightened,  new  laws  were  possible.  These  continued 
to  be  known  as  the  "  Laws  of  Moses,"  as  laws  in  all  early 
countries  have  been  attributed  to  some  renowned  personage, 
to  give  them  added  force. 

In  these  early  periods  which  we  have  been  studying,  the 
religion  of  the  Hebrews  possessed  many  features  in  common 
with  those  of  surrounding  nations.  We  read  that  the  "  Chil- 
dren of  Israel  walked  through  the  fire,"  which  means  that 
they  sacrificed  their  first-born  in  flames  as  offerings  to  their 
God.  Jahweh  was  believed  to  be  a  jealous  God,  vindictive, 
demanding  cruel  treatment  of  captives,  and  fierce  and  relent- 


THS   STORY   OF   THE    HEBREWS.  45I 

less  in  battle.  A  man  cannot  get  a  higher  ideal  of  God  than 
that  of  a  perfect  human  being,  and  this  was  an  age  when  all 
ideas  and  ideals  were  crude. 

When  the  Hebrews  settled  Canaan,  they  learned  much 
from  the  earlier  inhabitants  of  the  land.  Becoming  farmers, 
they  quite  naturally  fell  into  the  way  of  worshipping  the  god 
of  harvests,  and  other  agricultural  deities  of  the  Canaanites. 
The  "  high  places  "  are  repeatedly  spoken  of,  these  being  places 
where  other  gods  were  worshipped.  When  roused  by  danger, 
they  renewed  their  covenant  with  Jahweh  and  returned  to  more 
careful  performance  of  their  part  of  the  early  agreement 

The  system  of  polygamy  was  well  established.  Several 
of  the  patriarchs  took  two  or  more  wives.  If  a  man  died 
childless,  it  was  not  only  customary  but  a  duty  that  the  next 
in  line  should  marry  the  widow  and  raise  up  seed  to  his 
memory.  This  is  expressly  shown  by  the  story  of  Ruth, 
most  attractive  in  its  early  simplicity.  We  learn  more  of  the 
ever)'  day  life  of  the  Israelites  in  the  period  following  Hebrew 
occupancy  of  Canaan  from  this  little  idyl  than  from  any  other 
source,  or  from  all  other  sources  combined. 

So  far  as  germs  of  government  and  judicial  administra- 
tion of  the  people  thus  far  discernible  are  concerned,  they  had 
seemingly  not  progressed  farther  than  the  instruction  of  Moses 
led  them.  The  years  spent  in  the  wilderness  after  the  exodus 
were  very  essential  to  the  future  welfare  of  the  Hebrew  nation. 
Their  government — to  whatever  extent  they  possessed  one — 
was  closely  allied  to  their  religion.  There  were  many  ex- 
periences met  with  in  these  forty  years  which  seemed  to  prove 
Jahweh's  care  and  protection  over  them,  and  Moses  was  re- 
garded as  his  representative  on  earth,  who  received  his  in- 
structions from  Jahweh  and  delivered  them  to  his  people. 

"  His  words  were  Jehovah's  message  to  them.  As  he  led 
them  in  their  wilderness  wandering,  they  felt  themselves  under 
the  direct  guidance  of  their  God;  he  attended  to  the  simple 
ritual  of  the  desert  sanctuary  at  Kadesh ;  to  him,  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  Jehovah,  were  referred  the  more  difficult  cases  of 
dispute  which  arose;  his  decisions  had  all  the  weight  of 
Jehovah's  authority.  In  this  way  he  laid  down  by  practical 
illustration  the  principles  of  that  civil  and  religious  law  which 
hears  his  name.     As  these  cases  multiplied,  he  was  led  to  con- 


452  THE  world's  progress 

stitute  a  rude  patriarchal  tribunal  composed  of  the  elders  of 
the  tribes.  In  this  simple  organization  is  found  the  germ  of 
the  Hebrew  judicial  and  executive  system. 

"  Thus  Moses  was  the  man  who  under  divine  direction 
*  hewed  Israel  from  the  rock.'  Subsequent  prophets  and  cir- 
cumstances chiselled  the  rough  boulder  into  symmetrical  form, 
but  the  glory  of  the  creative  act  is  rightly  attributed  to  the 
first  great  Hebrew  prophet.  As  a  leader,  he  not  only  created 
a  nation,  but  guided  them  through  infinite  vicissitudes  to  a 
land  where  they  might  have  a  settled  abode  and  develop  into 
a  stable  power;  in  so  doing,  he  left  upon  his  race  the  imprint 
of  his  own  personality.  As  a  judge,  he  set  in  motion  forces 
which  ultimately  led  to  the  incorporation  of  the  principles  of 
right  in  objective  laws.  As  a  priest,  he  first  gave  form  to 
the  worship  of  Jehovah.  As  a  prophet,  he  gathered  together 
all  that  was  best  in  the  faith  of  his  age  and  race,  and,  fusing 
them,  gave  to  his  people  a  living  religion."  ^ 

Before  the  time  of  the  monarchy,  their  darkest  years  were 
those  wherein  the  Israelites  departed  from  this  Mosaic  teach- 
ing; their  best  periods,  those  in  which  they  assimilated  it  and 
attempted  to  carry  it  out.  To  whatever  extent  they  developed 
strength  and  stability  for  their  future  nation  before  the  birth 
of  their  kingdom,  such  strength  came  as  a  result  of  the  Mosaic 
religious  and  moral  teaching. 

^Hist.  of  the  Hebrew  People :    Kent  Vol.  I  44. 


THE   STORY   OF  THE   HEBREWS.  453 

CHAPTER   XI. 
Causes  Leading  to  the  Kingdom. 

1250  B.  c.  has  been  taken  as  an  approximate  date  for  the 
exodus  of  the  Israelites  from  Eg^pt,  some  placing  the  event 
still  earlier.  After  the  wandering  in  the  desert,  considerable 
time  was  spent  winning  Canaan  from  its  earlier  possessors 
before  any  settlement  was  possible.  The  twelfth  century  and 
first  part  of  the  eleventh  before  Christ  were  years  of  re-adjust- 
ment, the  Israelites  losing  the  habits  of  desert  nomads  and 
becoming  tillers  of  the  soil. 

In  rocky  districts  they  still  raised  sheep  and  cattle  but 
acquired  fixed  homes.  Warfare  had  been  constant,  but  in 
later  years  had  been  carried  on  wholly  by  individual  tribes, 
there  being  no  concerted  action.  The  tendency  to  divide  and 
seek  each  its  own  peculiar  interests  had  been  apparent  from 
the  first,  and  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century  b.  c.  found 
the  tribes  prostrated  as  a  result.  The  Canaanites  no  longer 
threatened  them  but  the  Philistines  constantly  grew  bolder. 
When  they  pressed  into  the  plain  of  Jezreel,  the  Israelites 
were  forced  to  fight  them,  but  lacking  an  able  leader  and  suffi- 
cient numbers,  they  lost  the  day.  Surviving  instincts  of  earlier 
superstitious  practices  led  them  to  bring  the  ark  containing 
their  covenant  with  Jehovah  from  its  sanctuary  at  Shiloh, 
thinking  this  might  aid  them  in  a  second  struggle.  "  Let  us 
fetch  the  ark  of  the  covenant  of  Jehovah  out  of  Shiloh  unto 
us,  that  it  may  come  among  us,  and  save  us  out  of  the  hand 
of  our  enemies."  But  instead  of  leading  to  victory,  30,000 
Israelites  fell  upon  the  battle  field  and  the  sacred  ark  itself 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Philistines. 

"  The  Philistines  burned  and  destroyed  the  temple  at  Shiloh, 
carried  the  captured  sacred  ark  to  the  temple  of  their  chief 
god,  Dagon,  and  subjected  the  land,  even  to  the  Jordan;  the 
people  were  disarmed  and  held  in  check  by  Philistine  prefects 
and  strongholds.  And  from  all  evidence  this  Philistine  domi- 
nation must  have  lasted  a  considerable  time.  Israel  seemed 
paralyzed  and  submitted,  though  with  gnashing  of  teeth." ' 

^Hist.  of  the  People  of  Israel :    Cornill,  75. 


454  THE  world's  progress. 

When  Israel  lay  stricken  and  at  the  mercy  of  her  enemies 
on  the  west,  the  Ammonites  thought  the  time  favorable  to 
lead  a  new  attack  for  the  purpose  of  recovering  their  earlier 
territories  on  the  east  The  town  of  Jabesh  was  first  afflicted, 
and  when  its  inhabitants  offered  to  surrender,  feeling  helpless 
to  overpower  their  ancient  foes,  the  king  of  the  Ammonites 
insolently  replied  that  he  would  cause  the  right  eye  of  each 
citizen  of  the  town  to  be  cast  out,  as  a  reproach  to  Israel.  In 
the  quaint  expression  of  Josephus :  "  The  king  of  the  Ammo- 
nites sent  ambassadors  to  them,  commanding  them  either  to 
deliver  themselves  up,  on  condition  to  have  their  right  eyes 
plucked  out,  or  to  undergo  a  siege,  and  have  their  cities  over- 
thrown. He  gave  them  their  choice,  whether  they  would  cut 
off  a  small  number  of  their  body,  or  universally  perish."  Im- 
plored to  grant  them  a  few  days  respite,  the  king  of  the  Am- 
monites scornfully  conceded  it,  sure  of  his  ultimate  triumph. 

In  Ephraim  dwelt  a  seer,  Samuel  by  name.  He  was  a 
godly  man,  having  rare  purity  of  character  and  intense  reli- 
gious fervor.  Dedicated  when  a  child  to  the  service  of 
Jehovah,  the  course  of  his  life  had  led  him  to  catch  the  spirit 
of  the  great  founder  of  the  Hebrew  nation  and  beyond  him, 
to  gain  a  broader  conception  of  the  great  God-Spirit.  He 
understood  why  his  people  were  a  prey  to  every  neighbor,  and 
knew  better  than  most  how  much  a  firm  leadership  was  needed 
by  them.  With  eyes  that  saw  far  into  the  future,  Samuel 
realized  that  the  crying  need  was  unity  and  concerted  action. 
Now  in  these  ancient  days,  unity  meant  kingship.  Under 
strong  kings,  contemporary  nations  flourished,  and  a  king  was 
apparently  necessary  in  Canaan. 

Saul,  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  seeking  his  father's  asses, 
approached  the  seer,  whose  prophetic  powers  were  well  known 
in  his  vicinity.  The  youth  thought  simply  to  invoke  his  aid 
in  his  private  interests,  but  Samuel  recognized  in  the  broad- 
shouldered,  well-proportioned  Benjaminite  one  who  might 
come  to  the  rescue  of  stricken  Israel.  With  prophetic  vision, 
Samuel  foretold  coming  events  and  anointed  Saul  as  one 
chosen  of  Jehovah  to  rule  the  nation  of  His  special  care.  Since 
he  was  not  called  immediately  to  action,  Saul  returned  to  his 
father's  house,  where  he  went  about  his  ordinary  duties.  But 
the  words  of  the  seer  had  sunk  deep  into  his  heart.     Indica- 


The  story  of  the  HEBREWS.  455 

tions  of  Israel's  stricken  condition  were  not  wanting  on  every 
hand,  and  Saul  brooded  over  her  helplessness  and  his  call  to 
save  his  people.  At  length,  when  the  citizens  from  mourning 
Jabesh  visited  his  vicinity,  vainly  trying  to  rouse  their  kins- 
men to  action,  Saul  saw  that  his  opportunity  had  come.  Sym- 
pathy had  been  everywhere  expressed  by  the  Israelites,  but 
they  had  suffered  too  many  recent  defeats  to  feel  confidence 
in  their  ability  to  win. 

Saul  hastily  cut  up  a  yoke  of  oxen,  and  sending  these  bloody 
tokens  to  the  various  tribes,  he  notified  them  that  such  treat- 
ment would  be  meted  out  to  their  flocks  and  herds  unless  they 
came  to  the  relief  of  the  trans-Jordan  cities.  Recognizing  a 
leader  at  last,  men  quickly  gathered.  The  desert  tribe  was 
surprised,  defeated  and  pursued  into  its  desert  strongholds. 
Thereupon  Saul  was  popularly  proclaimed  king,  as  it  was 
now  believed  that  he  alone  could  save  the  Hebrews  from  the 
Philistines,  who  were  heavily  oppressing  them. 

A  king  is  ordinarily  one  who  rules  a  kingdom,  but  in  the 
case  of  Saul,  a  kingdom  had  first  to  be  won.  His  encounters 
with  the  Philistines  were  successful,  but  his  reig^  proved  to 
be  a  continual  campaign  against  them.  Gradually  Saul  be- 
came estranged  from  Samuel,  who  represented  the  best  ele- 
ment in  Israel.  Priests  of  a  later  period  assigned  the  dif- 
ference between  them  as  having  arisen  over  Saul's  leniency 
toward  his  captives,  but  it  is  believed  that  instead  it  came 
naturally  between  two  men  whose  ideals  were  wide  apart. 
Saul  was  incapable  of  taking  an  exalted  view  of  his  people's 
mission,  as  did  his  priest  and  prophet. 

Beset  on  all  sides  by  the  enemy,  estranged  from  Samuel 
and  in  general  from  the  priesthood,  Saul  became  moody  and 
subject  to  fits  of  melancholia.  To  dispel  these,  David,  son  of 
Jesse,  was  brought  from  his  father's  flocks  on  the  mountain- 
side, to  gladden  the  king's  idle  hours.  David  was  accom- 
plished upon  the  harp,  and  his  music  had  power  to  quiet  the 
restless  king,  who  heaped  favors  and  honors  upon  him — after 
the  nature  of  his  impulsive  disposition.  As  armour-bearer 
to  the  king,  David  had  frequent  opportunities  to  distinguish  him- 
self, while  he  and  the  king's  son  Jonathan  became  fast  friends. 
However,  as  David  grew  in  favor  with  the  people,  Saul  be- 
came intensely  jealous  of  him.     Where  the  kingship  was  but 


456  THE  WORIvD'S   PROGRKSS. 

an  experiment,  popularity  was  important  to  a  ruler.  In  fiis 
disordered  brain,  Saul  conceived  that  a  plot  was  being  laid  by 
his  son  and  David,  and  as  a  result,  David  was  obliged  to  flee 
for  his  life.  He  raised  his  standard  as  an  outlaw  chief,  and 
all  the  dissatisfied  element  of  the  land  flocked  to  his  side.  Yet 
even  here  David  favored  the  people  of  Israel  whenever  he 
could ;  for  protection  he  went  into  the  service  of  the  Philistine 
king  of  Gath,  but  we  are  told  that  when  he  was  supposed  to  be 
fighting  against  the  Hebrews,  he  was  in  reality  fighting  off 
their  desert  enemies. 

The  division  within  the  ranks  of  Israel  once  more  gave 
opportunity  to  the  watchful  Philistines.  They  made  ready  for 
a  final  assault,  and  the  moody  and  disheartened  Saul  prepared 
to  fight  them  back.  He  was  no  longer  able  to  rouse  his  kins- 
men as  at  first.  Many  were  discontented  with  his  rule,  and 
many  favored  David.  Before  the  battle,  Saul,  grown  more 
superstitious  with  the  pressure  of  circumstance,  visited  the 
witch  of  Endor  to  learn  by  her  art  the  issue  of  the  battle. 
Never  does  the  king,  tall  in  stature  and  once  confident,  but 
now  broken  in  spirit,  appear  more  tragic.  When  she  pre- 
dicted defeat — and  small  art  was  needed  to  foretell  such  an 
apparent  outcome — Saul  felt  that  all  was  lost.  One  feels  as 
when  the  voice  of  Caesar  spake  unto  Brutus  in  the  great  play : 
"  Thou  shalt  see  me  at  Philippi" — the  battle  is  lost  before  it 
is  begun. 

When  all  was  lost,  Saul  gave  his  sword  to  his  armour- 
bearer  to  stab  him  lest  he  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy. 
When  he  lacked  courage,  he  plunged  it  into  his  own  breast. 
Both  he  and  his  noble  son  Jonathan  went  down  on  that  fate- 
ful field,  and  so  ended  the  first  reign  in  Israel.  David  is  be- 
lieved to  have  composed  his  beautiful  elegy  "  How  are  the 
Mighty  Fallen  "  upon  this  occasion. 


Th^  story  oif  thb  Hebrews.  457 

David's  Lament. 

Thy  glory,  O  Israel, 

Is   slain   upon  thy   high   places! 

How  are  the  mighty — 

Fallen ! 

Tell  it  not  in  Gath, 

Publish  it  not  in  the  streets  of  Ashkelon; 

Lest   the   daughters   of  the    Philistines   rejoice. 
Lest   the   daughters   of  the   uncircumcised   triumph. 

Ye  mountains  of  Gilboa,  let  there  be  no  dew  nor  rain  upon  you, 

Neither  fields  of  offerings: 

For  the  shield  of  the  mighty  was  vilely  cast  away, 
The  shield  of  Saul,  as  of  one  not  anointed  with  oil. 

From  the  blood  of  the  slain, 

From  the  fat  of  the  mighty, 

The  bow  of  Jonathan  turned  not  back. 
And  the  swora  of  Saul  returned  not  empty. 

Saul  and  Jonathan  were  lovely  and  pleasant  in  their  lives, 
And  in  their  death  they  were  not  divided; 

They  were  swifter  than  eagles. 

They  were  stronger  than  lions. 

Ye  daughters  of  Israel, 
Weep  over  Saul, 

Who  clothed  you  in  scarlet. 

Who  put  ornaments  of  gold  upon  your  apparel. 

How  are  the  mighty — 
Fallen  in  the  midst  of  the  battle! 
O  Jonathan, 
Slain  upon  thy  high  places. 

I  am  distressed  for  thee,  my  brother  Jonathan: 
Very  pleasant  hast  thou  been  unto  me: 

Thy  love  to  me  was  wonderful, 

Passing  the  love  of  women. 

1—31 


458  THE  worIvD's  progress. 

How  are  the  mighty — 

FaUen! 
And  the  weapons  of  war — 

Perished ! 

— Modern  Reader's  Bible. 

In  the  Old  Testament  itself  are  two  contradictory  esti- 
mates of  the  character  of  Saul,  One  was  written  by  those 
who  favored  and  cared  for  him;  the  other,  by  the  faction 
which  favored  David.  Later  compilers  have  thrown  the  two 
together,  and  the  result  is  that  we  must  once  more  disentangle 
the  two  narratives  and  then  judge  between  them.  The  fol- 
lowing characterizations  of  him  differ  considerably,  and  yet 
have  certain  ideas  in  common: 

"  Saul  is  one  of  the  most  tragic  figures  in  history.  A 
great  and  nobly  endowed  nature,  heroic  and  chivalrous,  in- 
spired with  fiery  zeal,  he  finally  accomplished  nothing.  .  .  . 
He  lacked  appreciation  of  the  true  character  of  Israel ;  in  this 
regard  tradition  has  given  a  wholly  correct  picture  of  him. 
He  was  exclusively  a  soldier,  and  was  in  a  fair  way  to  ex- 
change Israel  into  a  secular  military  state  and  thus  divert  it 
from  its  religious  function  in  universal  history.  Saul  may 
claim  our  deepest  compassion  and  our  heartiest  sympathy, 
but  the  fall  of  his  power  was  a  blessing  for  Israel." ' 

The  second  criticism  upon  the  fallen  king  seems  more  fair 
and  sympathetic: 

"  Saul  was  a  simple-minded,  impulsive,  courageous  war- 
rior; he  was  a  loyal  patriot  who  loved  his  people  and  was 
ready  to  give  his  life  for  them;  his  physical  pre-eminence, 
combined  with  energy  and  enthusiasm,  fitted  him  to  lead  a 
sudden  attack  and  to  awaken  loyal  support,  while  his  intrepid 
courage  kindled  the  same  in  others.  But  Saul  was  a  son  of 
that  rude  age  whose  roots  were  found  in  the  period  of  the 
Judges.  In  a  sense  hje  was  a  child  grown  big.  The  posi- 
tion which  he  occupied  demanded  executive  ability,  tact,  the 
power  of  organization,  and,  above  all,  patience  and  persistency. 
In  these  maturer  qualities  he  was  deficient ;  they  are  rarely  the 
possession  of  fiery,  impetuous  natures.  In  addition,  Saul  was 
rfnable  to  understand  and  appreciate  the  higher  religious  ex- 

»Hist.  of  the  People  of  Israel :  Cornill,  83. 


THE   STORY   OF   THE    HEBREWS.  459 

periences  and  ideals  which  were  already  becoming  the  pos- 
session of  the  more  enlightened  souls  of  seers  like  Samuel. 
As  is  frequently  true  with  such  a  nature,  Saul  was  super- 
stitious. Circumstances  tended  to  develop  the  darker  rather 
than  the  brighter  side  of  his  character.  The  constant  trials 
and  cares  of  the  court  and  battle-field  daunted  his  enthusiasm, 
and  induced  those  attacks  of  melancholia  which  obscured  the 
nobler  Saul  and  led  him  to  commit  acts  which  constantly 
increased  the  density  of  the  clouds  that  gathered  about  his 
latter  days. 

"  When  he  fell  at  Gilboa,  and  the  Philistines  again  be- 
came masters  of  northern  and  central  Canaan,  Saul's  work 
seemed  to  be  completely  undone ;  but  its  foundations  were  laid 
too  deeply  to  he  undermined  by  political  changes.  Saul  found 
the  Hebrews  ground  down  under  Philistine  dominance,  broken 
in  spirit,  undisciplined,  and  little  more  than  cowards.  He 
united  and  aroused  them  to  strike  for  independence.  By  his 
successes  he  inspired  in  them  confidence  and  courage.  In  the 
severe  training-school  of  Philistine  warfare,  he  developed  out 
of  the  cowards  who  had  fled  before  the  Philistine  army  to 
hide  themselves  in  caves  and  cisterns,  the  hardy,  brave  war- 
riors with  whom  David  made  his  conquests.  Above  all,  he 
taught  the  Hebrews  by  practical  illustration,  more  clearly 
than  ever  before,  that  by  union  and  union  alone  they  could 
be  free,  and  enjoy  peace  and  prosperity.  As  is  often  the 
case,  the  pioneer  perished  amidst  seeming  failure  before  he 
saw  the  ripe  fruits  of  his  labors;  but  his  work  was  absolutely 
necessary.  David  reaped  the  fruits  of  Saul's  sowing,  but  the 
harvest  would  never  have  been  so  glorious  without  the  pioneer's 
toils."  • 

Reign  oe  David. 

Saul  is  supposed  to  have  ruled  not  longer  than  eight  or 
ten  years.  His  youngest  son,  Eshbaal,  was  recognized  as  his 
natural  successor.  Abner,  Saul's  commander-in-chief,  gave 
Eshbaal  the  support  of  whatever  army  survived,  and  he  was 
established  on  the  east  side  of  the  Jordan,  while  all  the  terri- 
tory west  of  the  river  receded  to  the  Philistines. 

David  realized  that  he  was  in  no  position  to  assume  con- 

"Hist,  of  the  Hebrew  People :  Kent,  Vol.  1, 180. 


460  thb  woru>'s  progress. 

trol  of  the  Hebrews  at  this  juncture,  for  he  had  but  a  few 
hundred  followers  and  he  was  sure  to  be  welcomed  by  all  the 
tribes  only  when  his  services  were  required  for  the  common 
safety.  Judah  was  deeply  attached  to  him  at  this  time,  and 
he  allowed  himself  to  be  made  king-  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and 
established  himself  at  Hebron. 

As  soon  as  Eshbaal  felt  sufficiently  secure  on  the  east  of 
Jordan  Abner  was  sent  to  overcome  David  and  his  followers, 
who  had  thus  failed  to  recognize  the  kingship  of  Eshbaal. 
They  suffered  defeat  and  had  to  retreat  across  the  river.  The 
times  were  troublous  and  before  eight  years  had  passed,  both 
Eshbaal  and  Abner  were  murdered.  This  left  the  way  open 
for  David,  to  whom  the  subjects  of  Eshbaal  sent  homage. 

The  Philistines  had  considered  the  little  kingdom  of  Saul's 
son  unworthy  of  attention,  but  a  kingdom  on  the  west  side 
of  the  river  might  prove  a  menace  to  their  power,  so  they 
hastened  to  attack  the  newly  crowned  king.  David  marched 
against  them  and  broke  forever  their  strength.  They  retired 
into  their  earlier  possessions  and  harassed  Israel  no  more. 

One  by  one  the  old  enemies  of  the  Hebrews  had  to  be 
reckoned  with.  The  Moabites  attacked  the  territory  of  David 
and  were  overcome  and  made  vassals.  On  the  north  the  Am- 
monites made  a  raid  and  were  so  completely  defeated  that  we 
hear  of  them  no  more.  On  the  south  the  Edomites  made  war, 
and  their  lands  also  became  a  Hebrew  province.  In  all  these 
wars,  David  was  the  defender  of  his  people — never  the 
aggressor,  yet  he  left  each  tribe  with  no  further  desire  to 
make  war  upon  Israel. 

David  was  a  statesman,  and  he  saw  at  once  that  as  king 
of  the  Hebrews,  he  must  no  longer  remain  isolated  with 
his  native  tribe,  in  the  vicinity  to  him  most  familiar.  He  saw 
that  the  site  of  Jerusalem  was  capable  of  excellent  defense, 
and  this  he  made  his  capital. 

"  Jerusalem  is  situated  pretty  near  the  central  part  of  the 
entire  country,  and  belonging  to  none  of  the  tribes  it  stood 
on  neutral  ground  above  them  and  their  rivalries.  When  it 
is  called  the  City  of  David  this  is  no  mere  phrase,  for  Jerusalem 
is  altogether  the  creation  of  David ;  and  when  we  consider  what 
Jerusalem  was  to  the  people  of  Israel,  and  through  the  people 
of  Israel  to  all  mankind,  we  shall  recognize  in  the  foundation 
of  this  City  of  David  an  event  of  world-wide  importance." 


THE   STORY   OF   THE    HEBREWS.  461 

Israel  had  reached  the  highest  pinnacle  of  its  political 
power.  David's  kingdom  was  the  most  powerful  one  between 
the  valley  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  Nile.  While  disturbances 
extended  throughout  the  reign  until  within  the  last  ten  of 
David's  forty  years,  yet  the  nation  was  saved  from  impending 
danger  and  was  placed  on  a  sure  basis.  Now  it  was  that 
David  allowed  his  personal  desires  to  lead  him  into  difficulties 
which  followed  him  many  years  and  which  darkened  the  reign 
which  had  promised  so  much.  An  infatuation  for  Bath-sheba, 
wife  of  one  of  his  officers,  took  possession  of  him,  and  caused 
him  to  make  way  with  her  husband  who  stood  in  his  way. 
Like  other  Semitic  and  Oriental  nations,  the  Hebrews  were 
accustomed  to  take  more  than  one  wife,  but  the  religion  of 
Jehovah  had  been  from  the  beginning  a  moral  religion,  and 
the  more  earnest  among  Israel's  people  could  but  be  shocked 
by  this  action  on  the  part  of  the  king.  Much  has  been  made 
of  David's  remorse,  but  it  was  not  so  great  but  that  he  allowed 
the  unscrupulous  woman  who  had  aided  him  in  his  wrong- 
doing to  exercise  a  strong  influence  over  him  throughout  his 
life.  His  sons  seemed  to  feel  no  restraint  upon  them  and 
added  crimes  to  their  house.  Absalom,  David's  favorite  son, 
took  advantage  of  his  father's  loss  of  popularity  to  raise  a 
revolt  against  him.  This  was  easily  put  down,  but  the  death 
of  Absalom  quite  unnerved  the  king.  Bath-sheba  rested  not 
until  she  had  settled  the  succession  upon  her  son,  Solomon. 
Shortly  after  this  decision  was  made  known,  David  died,  having 
reigned  forty  years.  In  realizing  what  all  these  years  meant 
for  Israel,  we  can  never  lose  sight  of  the  pioneer  work  of 
Saul  which  alone  made  possible  the  more  brilliant  one  of  his 
successor. 

"  It  is  not  possible  to  overestimate  what  David  did  for 
Israel :  Israel  as  a  people,  as  a  representative  of  political  life, 
as  a  concrete  quantity  in  the  development  of  universal  history, 
as  a  nation  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  word,  is  exclusively  his 
work.  With  this  he  completed  what  Moses  had  begTin  in 
quiet  and  inconspicuous  labors  on  Sinai  and  at  Kadesh.  And 
all  of  this  David  created  as  it  were  out  of  nothing,  under  the 
most  difficult  conditions  conceivable,  with  no  other  means  than 
his  own  all-inspiring  and  all-compelling  personality.     .     .     . 

"  David  created  Israel  and  at  the  same  time  raised  it  to 


462  THE  world's   progress. 

its  highest  eminence;  what  Israel  was  under  and  through 
David  it  never  again  became.  And  so  we  can  easily  under- 
stand how  the  eyes  of  Israel  rested  in  grateful  reverence  upon 
this  figure,  and  how  a  second  David  became  the  dream  of 
Israel's  future. 

"  True,  the  picture  of  David  does  not  lack  the  traits  of 
human  frailty,  which  Israelitish  tradition,  with  a  truly  admir- 
able sincerity  has  neither  suppressed  nor  palliated;  but  the 
charm  which  this  personality  exercised  over  all  contemporaries 
without  exception  has  not  yet  faded  for  us  of  later  day ;  who- 
ever devoted  himself  without  prejudice  to  the  contemplation 
of  David's  history  and  character  cannot  fail  to  like  him.  A 
saint  and  psalm-singer,  as  later  tradition  has  represented  him, 
he  certainly  was  not ;  but  we  find  in  him  a  truly  noble  human 
figure,  which,  in  spite  of  all,  preserved  the  tenderest  and  most 
fragrant  bloom  of  its  nature,  perfect  directness  and  simplicity; 
nowhere  any  posing,  nothing  theatrical,  such  as  is  always 
found  in  sham  greatness;  he  always  acts  out  what  he  is,  but 
his  unspoiled  nature,  noble  at  heart,  generally  comes  very  near 
to  the  right  and  good.  At  the  same  time  the  whole  personality 
is  touched  with  a  breath  of  genuine  piety  and  childlike  trust 
in  God,  so  that  we  can  wholly  comprehend  how  he  appears 
to  tradition  as  the  ideal  ruler,  the  king  after  God's  own 
heart. 

"  This  king,  who  did  more  for  the  worldly  greatness  and 
earthly  power  of  Israel  than  any  one  else,  was  a  genuine 
Israelite  in  that  he  appreciated  also  Israel's  religious  destiny: 
he  was  no  soldier-king,  no  conqueror  and  warrior  of  common 
stamp,  no  ruler  like  any  one  of  a  hundred  others,  but  he  is 
the  truest  incorporation  of  the  unique  character  of  Israel,  a 
unique  personality  in  the  history  of  the  world,  and  we  under- 
stand how  he  could  become  the  impersonation  of  an  idea — 
how  the  highest  and  holiest  that  Israel  hoped  for  and  longed 
for  appears  at  the  Son  of  David."  * 

We  are  shocked  as  we  read  of  David's  cruelty  to  captives, 
but  in  his  ferocious  treatment  he  was  but  following  an  instinct 
common  to  the  Semitic  race.  It  is  to  be  remembered  that  he 
was  but  a  brief  time  removed  from  the  era  of  the  Judges,  when 
even  Samuel,  the  far-seeing  seer,  and  God-fearing  man,  hacked 
an  enemy  to  pieces  before  the  altar  of  Jehovah,  to  the  supposed 

*Cornill :    Hist,  of  People  of  Israel,  83. 


THE  STORY  OF  THE   HEBREWS.  463 

gratification  of  his  God.  David's  faults  were  common  to  his 
age,  and  they  were  not  looked  upon  by  his  contemporaries  as 
we  look  upon  them  today,  but  his  virtues  and  redeeming  char- 
acteristics raised  him  far  above  the  majority  of  Israel's  people, 
and  his  reign  was  harked  back  to  as  most  worthy  in  Hebrew 
annals. 

Solomon. 

Solomon  was  the  son  of  David's  fourth  wife— Bathsheba. 
Selfish,  devoid  of  principle  and  fond  of  intrigue,  she  influenced 
David  to  recognize  her  son  as  his  successor,  setting  aside  the 
right  of  an  older  son.  It  is  not  unlikely  that  David  beUeved 
Solomon  the  more  capable  of  serving  Israel. 

Solomon  had  inherited  his  mother's  selfishness  and  love 
of  display.  He  soon  caused  the  death  of  his  brother,  in  order 
to  make  his  crown  secure.  Having  neither  aptitude  nor  ability 
for  war,  fortifications  took  the  place  of  active  armies.  The 
vassal-kingdoms  which  David  had  won  were  soon  lost.  Forts 
were  erected  at  important  border  places,  and  the  city  of 
Jerusalem  was  strongly  fortified. 

Oriental  display  and  absolutism  were  emulated  by  the 
young  king.  He  desired  to  set  his  kingdom  on  a  footing  with 
other  kingdoms  of  his  time,  and,  ignoring  the  early  aims  and 
mission  of  the  Israelites,  he  made  everything  else  subordinate 
to  the  exaltation  of  the  court  and  king.  Commercial  alliances 
were  made  with  neighboring  peoples;  wives  were  taken  from 
many  states — petty  and  great.  Most  flattering  was  thought 
to  be  the  marriage  alliance  between  the  Hebrew  king  and  a 
daughter  of  the  pharaoh  of  Egypt,  and  elaborate  apartments 
were  provided  her.  In  early  times  a  king  added  materially  to 
his  property  and  prestige  by  making  numerous  alliances  of 
this  sort.  David  had  deemed  it  best  to  do  so  and  Solomon 
followed  the  principle  on  a  much  wider  scale. 

Naturally  ample  funds  were  now  required  to  meet  the  ex- 
penses of  the  court,  and  various  means  were  provided  to  secure 
the  necessary  income.  The  whole  kingdom  was  divided  into 
twelve  districts  and  each  was  required  to  defray  the  court's 
expenses  for  one  month.  Moreover,  commercial  enterprises 
were  entered  upon ;  toll  was  collected  from  the  overland  trade, 
and  the  king  himself  dealt  heavily  in  horses,  which  he  im- 
ported from  Egypt  and  sold  to  the  neighboring  peoples  at  a 


464  THS  world's   progress. 

good  profit.  Suddenly  the  little  nation  of  Israelites,  so  long 
isolated  and  remote  from  the  influences  of  wealth,  was  thrown 
open  to  outside  contact  on  every  hand. 

"  Hitherto  struggles  within  and  hostility  without  had 
rendered  the  Hebrew  peasants  almost  impervious  to  foreign 
influences;  now,  all  at  once,  the  bars  were  thrown  down,  and 
these  came  rushing  in  like  a  tidal  wave.  The  horse  took  the 
place  of  the  ass ;  metal  weapons  and  tools  supplanted  the  rude 
ones  of  flint  and  wood ;  walled  cities  arose  on  the  sites  of  the 
primitive  towns  with  their  mud  and  stone  hovels;  the  rude 
barracks  of  David  grew  into  a  palace;  the  simple  gathering 
of  followers  about  Saul,  as  he-  sat  under  his  tamarisk-tree  in 
Ramah,  developed  into  a  great  Oriental  court;  luxuries  un- 
dreamed of  before  came  to  be  regarded  as  necessities ;  foreign 
spices,  apes,  peacocks,  ivory,  precious  stones  and  woods 
aroused  the  curiosity  and  delighted  the  senses  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  gay  capital."  * 

Nations  entering  into  commercial  relations  with  Solomon 
expected  as  a  matter  of  course  that  their  gods  would  be  wel- 
comed in  the  land  of  the  Hebrews.  Many  of  the  commercial 
treaties  were  cemented  by  marriage  alliances,  and  the  princesses 
who  came  into  the  king's  harem  brought  their  own  forms  of 
worship  with  them.  Places  of  worship  had  to  be  provided 
for  them,  and  the  idolatry  of  later  years  may  be  traced  back 
in  a  large  measure  to  the  laxity  of  this  period. 

The  adornment  of  Jerusalem  demanded  much  of  the  king's 
attention.  In  place  of  the  simple  quarters  which  had  sufficed 
for  David,  a  noble  palace  arose.  Apartments  for  the  queens 
were  needed.  It  has  recently  been  insisted  that  instead  of  the 
three  hundred  and  sixty  wives  credited  to  Solomon,  he  had 
but  seventy,  but  a  few  more  or  less  seem  of  little  moment. 
The  harem  rivaled  that  of  Persia,  and  the  cost  of  maintaining 
so  elaborate  a  court  was  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  resources 
of  the  kingdom.  The  people  were  taxed  to  the  utmost.  The 
Canaanitcs,  who  had  long  been  permitted  to  live  in  peace  by 
the  side  of  the  Hebrews,  were  now  reduced  to  slavery  and  put 
at  forced  labor,  quite  as  the  Hebrews  had  been  in  Egypt. 

Notwithstanding,  many  ties  bound  the  people  to  their 
king.     They  took  great  pride  in  the  splendor  of  their  capital, 

"Kent :    Hist,  of  Hebrew  People,  180. 


Copyright   by   Uiiflerwood   &   Underwood.    X.    ^ 


Poses  of  Sharox. 


TH^   STORY   OP  THE    HEBREWS.  465 

and  especially  were  they  gratified  by  the  erection  of  the  temple 
in  Jerusalem.  Hither  David  had  brought  the  ark  of  the 
covenant,  which  had  been  recovered  from  the  Philistines,  and 
here  with  due  ceremony  the  center  of  the  kingdom  had  already 
been  made  the  religious  center  as  well.  It  seems  probable  that 
to  Solomon  the  temple  was  but  a  necessary  adjunct  to  his 
court  buildings.  Among  most  ancient  peoples  temples  were 
erected  in  connection  with  the  king's  palace.  It  gave  added 
dignity  and  inspired  wonder.  To  the  masses  it  probably  meant 
much  more.  Certainly  it  grew  later  to  be  the  center  for  their 
religious  enthusiasm  and  spirit. 

Nor  was  Solomon's  popularity  based  alone  upon  his  achieve- 
ments. He  had  a  way  of  awakening  personal  popularity.  He 
attained  a  wide  reputation  for  his  so-called  "  wisdom."  As 
we  follow  his  reckless  policy  of  plunging  his  country  on  to 
ruin,  this  far-famed  wisdom  is  not  at  once  apparent.  It  con- 
sisted in  subtlety,  quick  wit,  ready  answers  and  apt  sayings, 
so  much  in  favor  among  all  oriental  peoples.  His  wisdom  is 
well  exemplified  by  the  stories  told  of  the  visit  of  the  Queen 
of  Sheba  to  his  court,  and  her  tests  as  to  the  truth  of  his  famed 
gift.  It  is  probable  that  this  Arabian  queen  came  to  negotiate 
commercial  advantages  for  her  subjects,  but  we  are  told  only 
the  ostensible  reason  for  her  coming:  to  test  the  wisdom  of 
Solomon,  whose  fame  had  reached  her  kingdom.  The  dusky 
queen  of  renowned  beauty  brought  costly  presents  to  the 
Hebrew  king,  and  received  high  honor  and  attention  at  his 
court.  Stories  have  survived  of  questions  put  to  his  majesty 
by  this  queen.  Two  bouquets  were  held  out  before  him,  appar- 
ently alike,  yet  one  was  just  gathered  from  his  garden,  and 
the  other  had  been  fashioned  by  the  maidens  of  the  queen. 
The  simple  tale  is  told  in  a  little  poem  entitled  "  King  Solo- 
mon and  the  Bees,"  and  we  leave  the  verses  to  complete  it. 

King  Solomon  and  the  Bees. 
A  Tale  of  the  Talmud. 

When  Solomon  was  reigning  in  his  glory, 
Unto  his  throne  the  Queen  of  Sheba  came, 

(So  in  the  Talmud  you  may  read  the  story) 
Drawn  by  the  magic  of  the  monarch's  fame. 


466  THE  world's  progress. 

To  see  the  splendors  of  his  court,  and  bring 
Some  fitting  tribute  to  the  mighty  king. 

Nor  this  alone;  much  had  her  Highness  heard 

What  flowers  of  learning  graced  the  royal  speech ; 

What  gems  of  wisdom  dropped  with  every  word; 
What  wholesome  lessons  he  was  wont  to  teach 

In  pleasing  proverbs,  and  she  wished,  in  sooth, 

To  know  if  Rumor  spoke  the  simple  truth. 

Besides,  the  queen  had  heard  (which  piqued  her  most) 
How  through  the  deepest  riddles  he  could  spy ; 

How  all  the  curious  arts  that  women  boast 
Were  quite  transparent  to  his  piercing  eye; 

And  so  the  queen  had  come — a  royal  guest — 

To  put  the  sage's  cunning  to  the  test. 

And  straight  she  held  before  the  monarch's  view, 
In  either  hand,  a  radiant  wreath  of  flowers; 

The  one,  bedecked  with  every  charming  hue, 

Was  newly  culled   from   Nature's  choicest  bowers; 

The  other,  no  less  fair  in  every  part. 

Was  the  rare  product  of  divinest  art. 

"  Which  is  the  true,  and  which  the  false  ? "  she  said. 

Great  Solomon  was  silent.     All-amazed, 
Each  wondering  courtier  shook  his  puzzled  head, 

While  at  the  garlands  long  the  monarch  gazed, 
As  one  who  sees  a  miracle,  and  fain. 
For  very  rapture,  ne'er  would  speak  again. 

"  Which  is  the  true  ? "  once  more  the  woman  asked, 

Pleased  at  the  fond  amazement  of  the  king, 
"  So  wise  a  head  should  not  be  hardly  tasked. 

Most  learned  liege,  with  such  a  trivial  thing ! " 
But  still  the  sage  was  silent;  it  was  plain 
A  deepening  doubt  perplexed  the  royal  brain. 

While  thus  he  pondered,  presently  he  sees, 
Hard  by  the  casement, — so  the  story  goes, — 


THE   STORY  OF  THE    HEBREWS.  467 

A  little  band  of  busy,  bustling  bees, 

Hunting  for  honey  in  a  withered  rose. 
The  monarch  smiled,  and  raised  his  royal  head; 
*  Open  the  window !  "—that  was  all  he  said. 

The  window  opened,  at  the  king's  command  ; 

Within  the  room  the  eager  insects  flew. 
And  sought  the  flowers  in  Sheba's  dexter  hand! 

And  so  the  king  and  all  the  courtiers  knew 
That  wreath  was  Nature's ;  and  the  baffled  queen 
Returned  to  tell  the  wonders  she  had  seen. 

My   story  teaches    (every  tale   should  bear 

A  fitting  moral)  that  the  wise  may  find 
In  trifles  light  as  atoms  in  the  air. 

Some  useful  lesson  to  enrich  the  mind, 
Some  truth  designed  to  profit  or  to  please, — 
As  Israel's  king  learned  wisdom  from  the  bees! 

— Saxe. 

Six  little  boys  and  six  little  girls,  all  dressed  alike,  with 
cropped  heads,  were  led  into  the  king's  presence,  and  he  was 
asked  to  tell  which  were  girls  and  which  boys.  "  Bring  in 
basins  of  water,"  he  commanded,  "  and  bid  them  wash  their 
hands."  Now  in  that  land  the  girls  wore  short  sleeves  and 
the  boys  long  ones.  Unthinking,  the  girls  washed  their  arms 
as  well,  but  the  boys  washed  their  hands  alone.  So  were  the 
spectators  silently  told  which  were  which. 

Such  ingenious  answers  as  these  established  for  Solomon 
his  reputation  for  wisdom,  and  many  of  the  wise  sayings  im- 
puted to  him  are  known  now  to  have  been  the  sayings  of 
others. 

Before  the  king's  death,  murmurings  were  not  uncommon 
because  of  the  oppressive  administration,  and  the  high-minded 
of  the  religious  body  looked  with  grave  misgivings  upon  the 
influx  of  foreign  gods.  Even  to  them  the  whole  danger  was 
not  apparent.  That  was  left  for  a  period  more  remote  to 
understand. 

When  Solomon  died,  his  son  came  forward  as  his  successoi. 
The  usual  custom  among  Semitics  was  for  the  crown  to  descend 


468  The  world's  progress. 

to  the  eldest  son,  but  the  kingship  was  a  new  institution  in 
Israel  and  the  people  had  held  to  the  right  of  electing  their 
king.  They  now  gathered  around  Rehoboam,  clamoring  for 
promises.  They  recalled  that  his  father  had  taxed  them 
heavily  and  asked  that  he  deal  with  them  more  leniently.  In- 
stead of  answering  such  reasonable  demands  at  once,  the  king 
told  them  he  would  make  reply  three  days  later.  Meanwhile 
he  counselled  with  his  ministers — how  should  he  meet  the 
popular  demand.  The  older  men  immediately  pointed  out  the 
safer  policy,  but  the  younger  ones  held  that  he  should  resent 
the  liberty  the  people  had  taken  in  making  any  demands  what- 
ever, and  should  assure  them  that  his  demands  would  be  even 
greater  than  those  of  his  father.  Their  folly  prevailed.  When 
the  people  heard  his  reply,  they  were  momentarily  grieved. 
Then  all  the  tribes  save  two — Judah  and  Benjamin — ^withdrew 
and  vowed  they  would  no  longer  support  the  house  of  David. 
Solomon's  son  received  the  support  of  two  tribes,  and  his 
kingdom  was  henceforth  known  by  the  name  of  Judaea,  while 
the  northern  kingdom  was  called  by  the  name  of  Israel. 

Having  seen  the  dangers  assailing  the  united  kingdom,  we 
realize  at  once  the  recklessness  of  the  policy  that  divided  it 
and  set  two  kingdoms  with  lessened  strength  to  hold  their  own 
among  their  neighbors. 


THE  STORY  OF  THE   HEBREWS.  469 

CHAPTER   XII. 
Aeter  the  Division  oe  the  Kingdom. 

While  the  arrogance  of  Rehoboam  and  the  extravagances 
of  Solomon  were  the  direct  causes  of  the  disunion,  yet  other 
agencies  had  long  been  at  work  to  bring  it  about.  In  the  first 
place,  natural  land  features  divided  the  ridge  on  the  west  side 
of  the  Jordan  into  two  distinct  parts.  Any  permanent  union 
was  not  probable.  Again,  the  northern  tribes  inhabited  the 
more  prosperous  district.  Their  resources  were  greater;  and 
with  the  jealousies  that  always  manifested  themselves  among 
the  tribes,  it  was  hardly  to  have  been  expected  that  they  would 
indefinitely  consent  to  be  ruled  by  Judean  kings.  Moreover,  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Solomon,  Judah  had  been  exempt  from  taxa- 
tion. Into  a  Judean  city  had  poured  the  wealth  of  the  kingdom, 
while  the  hand  of  oppression,  so  heavy  elsewhere,  was  unfelt 
alone  in  this  province.  Indignation  had  apparently  reached  a 
high  pitch  before  Solomon's  death,  yet  spokesmen  for  the  north- 
em  tribes  met  with  the  new  king  and  made  a  simple  and  reason- 
able demand  for  reduced  taxes  in  turn  for  allegiance.  A 
statesman  might  have  held  the  kingdom  intact,  yet  it  is  scarcely 
probable  that  union  would  have  indefinitely  endured.  The 
royal  messenger  sent  to  reconcile  the  northern  tribes  after  their 
withdrawal  was  so  speedily  stoned  to  death  that  the  king  fled 
for  safety  to  Jerusalem.  Jeroboam,  an  experienced  general, 
was  elected  king  of  Israel — the  northern  kingdom,  and  hos- 
tilities between  the  two  kingdoms  were  inevitable. 

Judah  was  somewhat  protected — on  the  north  by  the  new- 
formed  state,  on  tlie  east  by  the  river  and  Dead  Sea,  on  the 
south  by  the  desert.  On  the  other  hand,  Israel,  with  her 
traversable  plains,  lay  open  to  approach  from  every  side,  and 
she  it  was  who  had  to  bear  the  brunt  of  outside  attack  for  the 
next  two  centuries. 

A  comparison  of  the  two  states  at  the  outset  shows  Israel 
io  have  been  first  in  natural  resources,  size  and  population; 
to  have  been  second  in  unity  and  centralized  government. 
Judah.  with  her  limited  area,  scarcity  of  water,  absence  of 


470  THS  wori^d's  progress. 

fertile  soil  and  scanty  population,  had  marked  advantage  in 
her  unity  and  hereditary  kingship.  There  were  ten  tribes  to 
be  pacified  in  the  north — only  two  in  the  south.  In  Israel  the 
jealousies  were  so  strong  that  it  was  the  work  of  a  moment 
for  an  influential  prince  to  assassinate  the  reigning  king  and 
usurp  the  crown. 

Judah  was  crippled  shortly  after  the  division  by  an  in- 
vasion of  Egyptian  forces.  They  penetrated  into  Israel  as 
well,  but  treasure  was  greatest  in  Jerusalem.  Three  hundred 
golden  shields,  made  by  Solomon  for  his  guards,  were  taken, 
together  with  the  rich  decoration  of  the  temple.  Rehoboam 
soon  after  had  the  ornaments  of  gold  replaced  by  others  of 
bronze,  so  the  splendor  of  the  temple  was  not  greatly  changed. 

For  some  time  hostilities  continued  between  the  Hebrew 
kingdoms.  Then  danger  from  Syria,  a  rising  state  with 
Damascus  at  its  head,  made  an  alliance  desirable  to  both  kings. 

After  the  disunion,  Jeroboam  felt  that  it  would  be  mani- 
festly unsafe  to  allow  the  people  of  Israel  to  go  to  Jerusalem 
to  celebrate  their  national  festivals,  lest  they  might  be  led  to 
return  to  Judah's  king.  Consequently  he  established  two 
sanctuaries,  one  at  Bethel  and  one  at  Dan,  instructing  people 
to  worship  at  the  one  nearest  them.  He  caused  a  golden  bull 
to  be  placed  before  the  altar  of  each,  thus  violating  the  com- 
mandment forbidding  graven  images.  Perhaps  in  so  doing 
the  king  was  merely  symbolizing  the  strength  of  Jehovah.  At 
an  earlier  period  this  would  have  been  less  objectionable,  but 
the  people  had  grown  somewhat  accustomed  to  worship  with- 
out symbols,  and  this  was  plainly  a  retrogression.  The  im- 
ageless  worship  of  Jehovah  was  one  of  its  distinctive  features, 
lifting   it   above   that  of   surrounding  peoples. 

While  prophets  of  a  later  day  denounced  the  act  of  Jero- 
boam, the  priests  of  his  own  day  were  too  near  the  change  to 
discern  its  grave  dangers. 

The  kingdoms  which  centered  at  Damascus  began  to  reach 
out  for  territory,  and  harassed  Israel  until  the  imperial  growth 
of  Assyria  caused  the  withdrawal  of  Syrian  troops  to  protect 
their  own  land.  Left  alone,  the  northern  kingdom  developed 
her  own  resources  and  attained  a  prosperity  rivaling  the  time 
of  Solomon.  Meanwhile,  Judah  had  been  sheltered  from  out- 
side wars  and  less  affected  by  religious  orders. 


THE   STORY   OF   THE    HEBREWS.  47I 

The  period  intervening  between  the  fall  of  Damascus  and 
the  wars  of  Tiglath-Pileser  III.  has  been  aptly  called  "  Israel's 
Indian  Summer."  The  outlying  territories  of  David  came 
once  more  under  Hebrew  rule,  divided  between  the  kingdoms 
of  the  north  and  south.  Commerce,  long  abandoned,  sprang 
up  and  rivaled  its  tide  in  Solomon's  reign.  Unfortunately, 
the  social  life  of  the  people  lacked  its  earlier  simplicity,  and 
there  were  tendencies  within  the  kingdom  itself  which  pointed 
to  the  disintegration  of  the  state  as  surely  as  did  the  forces 
that  were  soon  to  approach  its  walled  cities. 

First,  recent  wars  had  fallen  most  heavily  upon  the  middle 
class.  Small  farmers,  returning  from  campaigns  of  defense 
of  Hebrew  borders,  found  their  estates  run  down,  sometimes 
dismantled.  Having  no  means  of  building  them  up  again, 
they  frequently  sank  into  the  peasantry.  In  periods  of  re- 
action, when  property  and  commercial  activity  returned,  it 
was  the  wealthy  who  were  benefited,  while  the  poor  became 
poorer  yet.  In  this  way  the  middle  class  had  practically  dis- 
appeared. Such  a  loss  would  be  serious  enough  to  a  state, 
but  this  was  by  no  means  all.  The  simplicity  of  living  which 
had  characterized  the  early  years  of  the  Hebrew  nation  had 
given  way  to  extravagance  and  reckless  waste  on  the  part  of 
the  rich,  throwing  into  powerful  contrast  the  condition  of  the 
poor.  The  humbler  classes  were  oppressed — not  by  foreign 
foes,  but  by  the  wealthy  of  their  own  state,  and  abandonment 
of  any  sympathy  between  social  classes  was  one  of  the  most 
alarming  tendencies. 

The  religious  life  of  the  country  was  at  a  low  ebb.  By 
the  masses  Jehovah  was  still  regarded  as  God  of  the  Hebrews 
— 3.  tribal  God,  quite  as  Baal  was  god  of  the  Phoenicians,  or 
Asshur  of  the  Assyrians.  It  was  taught  by  the  priests  that 
Jehovah  would  cause  the  Hebrews  to  win  against  their  enemies, 
since  only  by  their  triumphs  was  he  honored.  He  was  wor- 
shipped much  as  were  the  gods  of  other  nations.  Licentious 
customs  borrowed  from  neighboring  peoples,  profaned  the  very 
temples,  and  undermined  earlier  religious  simplicity. 

It  was  such  a  state  of  affairs  that  called  forth  the  utterances 
of  Amos  and  Hosea,  from  whose  addresses  we  learn  of  social 
conditions  in  their  day.  In  some  hearts  the  religious  mission  of 
the  Hebrews  still  remained  the  most  sacred  of  all  trusts.     When 


472  th^  world's  progress. 

evils  of  their  age  threatened  to  engulf  them,  certain  clear- 
sighted ones  were  moved  to  rouse  the  people — to  bring  home 
to  them  the  consequences  sure  to  overtake  their  kingdom  un- 
less these  glaring  wrongs  were  corrected. 

Such  a  spirit  was  Amos,  a  simple,  clear-minded  shepherd, 
dwelling  on  the  borderland  between  Israel  and  Judah,  and 
closely  observant  of  affairs  in  both  states.  Inspired  to  voice 
his  protest  against  the  corruption  of  his  people,  he  left  his 
flocks  and  journeyed  to  Bethel,  the  religious  center  of  Israel. 
Reaching  the  temple  on  a  feast  day,  he  was  confronted  by 
riotous  music  and  unseemly  merriment,  desecrating  the 
temple  itself.  It  was  then  he  created  a  sensation  by  his  pas- 
sionate address,  fragments  of  which  are  preserved  to  us  in  the 
biblical  book  which  bears  his  name.  Instead  of  offending  at 
once  by  quick  reproof,  and  thus  losing  a  chance  to  he  heard, 
he  began  by  predicting  misfortunes  certain  to  overtake  neigh- 
boring peoples  because  of  their  misdoings.  In  this  way  he 
won  the  attention  and  approval  of  an  audience  who  liked  to 
be  told  that  they  were  the  Chosen  People,  and  Jehovah  was 
with  them,  and  that — apparently  no  matter  what  they  did — 
he  would  not  permit  them  to  fail.  Then  Amos  launched  into 
the  iniquity  of  Israel,  and  prophesied  disasters  sure  to  befall 
her.  He  uttered  a  new  truth  when  he  said  that  since  the 
Hebrews  had  received  special  blessings  from  Jehovah,  even 
more  strictly  would  they  be  held  to  account  for  their  short- 
comings; that  as  their  light  had  been  greater  than  that  be- 
stowed upon  their  neighbors,  so  would  the  requirements  be 
greater  for  them  than  for  others. 

"  Hear  ye  this  word  which  I  take  up  against  you,  even  a 
lamentation,  O  house  of  Israel. 

"  The  virgin  of  Israel  is  fallen;  she  shall  no  more  rise  up; 
she  is  forsaken  upon  her  land ;  there  is  none  to  raise  her  up. 
For  thus  saith  the  Lord  God:  The  city  that  went  out  by  a 
thousand  shall  leave  an  hundred,  and  that  which  went  forth 
by  an  hundred  shall  leave  ten,  to  the  house  of  Israel. 

"  For  thus  saith  the  Lord  unto  the  house  of  Israel :  Seek 
ye  me,  and  ye  shall  live;  but  seek  not  Bethel  nor  enter  into 
Gilgal;  for  Gilgal  shall  surely  go  into  captivity,  and  Bethel 
shall  come  to  nought. 

"  Seek  the  Lord  and  ye  shall  live;  lest  he  break  out  like 


THE   STORY  OF  THE   HEBREWS.  473 

fire  in  the  house  of  Joseph,  and  devour  it,  and  there  be  none 
to  quench  It.  Ye  who  turn  judgment  to  wormwood, 
and  leave  off  righteousness  in  the  earth,  seek  him  that  maketh 
the  seven  stars  and  Orion,  and  turneth  the  shadow  of  death 
into  mormng  and  maketh  the  day  dark  with  night;  that  calleth 
for  the  waters  of  the  sea,  and  poureth  them  out  upon  the  face 
of  the  earth:     The  Lord  is  his  name. 

"  Forasmuch  therefore  as  your  treading  is  ui^n  the  poor 
and  ye  take  from  him  burdens  of  wheat:  ye  have  built  houses  of 
hewn  stone,  but  ye  shall  not  dwell  in  them;  ye  have  planted 
pleasant  vineyards,  but  ye  shall  not  drink  wine  of  them. 

"For  I  know  your  manifold  transgressions  and  your 
mighty  sins;  they  afflict  the  just,  they  take  a  bribe,  and  they 
turn  aside  the  poor  in  the  gate  from  their  right     .     . 

"  Woe  to  them  that  are  at  ease  in  Zion,  and  trust  in  the 
mountains  of  Samaria,  which  are  named  chief  of  the  nations, 
to  whom  the  house  of  Israel  came! 

"Ye  that  put  far  away  the  evil  day,  and  cause  the  seat 
of  violence  to  come  near;  that  lie  upon  beds  of  ivory,  and 
stretch  themselves  upon  their  couches,  and  eat  the  lambs  out 
of  the  flock,  and  the  calves  out  of  the  midst  of  the  stall ;  that 
chant  to  the  sound  of  the  viol,  and  invent  to  themselves  instru- 
ments of  music  like  David;  that  drink  wine  in  bowls,  and 
anoint  themselves  with  the  chief  ointments;  but  they  are  not 
grieved  for  the  affliction  of  Joseph. 

"  Therefore  now  shall  they  go  captive  with  the  first  that 
go  captive,  and  the  banquet  of  them  that  stretched  themselves 
shall  be  removed." — Amos  5  and  6. 

Not  long  after,  Hosea  came  forward  with  the  startling 
and  altogether  unpleasant  message  that  Jehovah  was  not  the 
God  of  the  Hebrews  alone,  but  of  the  whole  world.  That  he 
was  a  God  of  righteousness,  and  rewarded  it  wherever  found, 
and  punished  evil  doing,  regardless  nf  the  doer.  He  touched 
a  new  chord  when  he  taught  that  God  was  love,  full  of  com- 
passion and  plenteous  in  mercy.  Heretofore  law  had  been  the 
pivot  around  which  religion  centered,  and  the  ritual  was  ob- 
served and  the  sacrifice  provided.  These  attended  to,  Jehovah 
was  supposed  to  be  appeased.  Hosea  taught  that  the  sacrifice 
of  burnt  offerings  availed  nothing — that  the  sacrifice  demanded 
was  "  an  humble  and  a  contrite  heart." 

1—32 


474  This  world's  progress. 

A  new  era  was  dawning  for  the  Hebrew  faith,  and  truth- 
divining  men  grasped  at  fundamental  principles,  applicable 
alike  to  the  whole  world.  It  is  not  surprising  that  long  years 
elapsed  before  such  broad  conceptions  sank  deep  into  the  hearts 
of  the  Hebrew  race.  One  of  their  kingdoms  was  scattered  to 
the  winds  before  these  were  comprehended,  save,  indeed,  by 
a  few,  far-sighted  minds;  the  other  kingdom  passed  through 
the  humiliation  of  captivity  and  exile  and  through  these  vicissi- 
tudes learned  the  truths  from  actual  experience. 

"  Hear  ye  this,  O  priests;  and  harken,  ye  house  of  Israel; 
and  give  ear,  O  house  of  the  king;  for  judgment  is  toward 
you,  because  ye  have  been  a  snare  on  Mizpah,  and  a  net  spread 
upon  Tabor.     .     .     . 

"  The  pride  of  Israel  doth  testify  to  his  face :  therefore 
shall  Israel  and  Ephraim  fall  in  their  iniquity ;  Judah  also  shall 
fall  with  them.  They  shall  go  with  their  flocks  and  with 
their  herds  to  seek  the  Lord  but  they  shall  not  find  him;  he 
hath  withdrawn  himself  from  them.  They  have  dealt 
treacherously  against  the  Lord :  for  they  have  begotten  strange 
children :  now  shall  a  mouth  devour  them  with  their  portions. 

"  O  Ephraim,  what  shall  I  do  unto  thee  ?  O  Judah,  what 
shall  I  do  unto  thee  ?  for  your  goodness  is  as  a  morning  cloud, 
and  as  the  early  dew  it  goeth  away.     .     .     . 

"  For  I  desired  mercy,  and  not  sacrifice ;  and  the  know- 
ledge of  God  more  than  burnt  offerings.  But  they  like  men 
have  transgressed  the  covenant :  there  have  they  dealt  treacher- 
ously against  me.     .     .     . 

"  Israel  hath  cast  off  the  thing  that  is  good :  the  enemy 
shall  pursue  him.  They  have  set  up  kings,  but  not  by  me: 
they  have  made  princes,  and  I  knew  it  not :  of  their  silver  and 
their  gold  have  they  made  them  idols,  that  they  may  be  cut  off. 
For  they  have  sown  the  wind,  and  they  shall  reap  the  whirl- 
wind :  it  hath  no  stalk :  the  bud  shall  yield  no  meal :  if  so  be 
it  yield,  the  strangers  shall  swallow  it  up.     .     .     . 

"  They  sacrifice  flesh  for  the  sacrifices  of  mine  offerings, 
and  eat  it;  but  the  Lord  accepteth  them  not;  now  will  he 
remember  their  iniquity  and  visit  their  sins :  they  shall  return 
to  Egypt.  For  Israel  hath  forgotten  his  Maker,  and  buildeth 
temples;  and  Judah  hath  multiplied  fenced  cities:  but  I  will 


THE   STORY   OF   THE)    HEBREWS.  475 

send  a  fire  upon  his  cities,  and  it  shall  devour  the  palaces 
thereof.     .     .     . 

"Ye  have  plowed  wickedness,  ye  have  reaped  iniquity; 
ye  have  eaten  the  fruit  of  lies :  because  thou  didst  trust  in  thy 
way,  in  the  multitude  of  thy  mighty  men.     . 

"  When  Israel  was  a  child,  then  I  loved  him,  and  called 
my  son  out  of  Eg>'pt.  As  they  called  them,  so  they  went  from 
them:  they  sacrificed  unto  Baalim,  and  burned  incense  to 
graven  images.  I  taught  Ephraim  also  to  go,  taking  them 
by  the  arms;  but  they  knew  not  that  I  healed  them.  I  drew 
them  with  cords  of  a  man,  with  bands  of  love :  and  I  was  to 
them  as  they  that  take  off  the  yoke  on  their  jaws,  and  I  laid 
meat  unto  them.     .     .     . 

"  O  Israel,  thou  hast  destroyed  thyself ;  but  in  me  is  thine 
help. 

"  O  Israel,  return  unto  the  Lord  thy  God,  for  thou  hast 
fallen  by  thine  iniquity." — Hosea,  5-14  cliapters. 

End  of  Israel. 

About  745  B.  c.  Tiglath-Pileser  III.  began  his  westward 
conquest,  incorporating  great  areas  into  his  already  spacious 
empire.  Heavy  tribute  was  exacted  from  provinces  so  an- 
nexed. The  amount  required  of  the  northern  kingdom — now 
known  by  the  name  of  its  new  capital,  Samaria — was  so  great 
that  the  state  soon  drooped  under  the  load.  Egypt,  desiring 
also  a  foothold  in  western  Asia,  employed  agents  to  stir  the 
conquered  countries  against  Assyria,  promising  aid  in  case  they 
would  revolt,  but  meaning  only  to  appropriate  territory  for 
the  Nile  kingdom  should  confusion  make  it  possible. 

Because  the  tribute  was  grievous  in  Samaria,  the  party 
opposed  to  paying  it  desired  an  alliance  with  Egypt.  States- 
men saw  that  such  a  movement  was  ill-timed,  but  their  voices 
were  drowned  in  the  multitude.  In  735  b.  c.  a  coalition  was 
formed  by  the  sea-coast  states  against  Assyria,  and  the  revolt- 
ing states  refused  the  yearly  tribute.  Before  the  allies  could 
rally,  Tiglath-Pileser  III.  reached  the  west  by  forced  marches, 
and  defeated  each  state  separately.  Much  land  was  laid  waste, 
captives  were  taken,  and  Hosea,  deemed  loyal  to  the  Assyrian 
government,  was  made  king  of  Samaria.  For  ten  years  the 
annual  levy  was  paid,  but  upon  the  death  of  the  great  Assyrian 


47^  THE  world's  progress. 

conqueror,  Hosea  yielded  to  the  popular  clamor  for  a  revolt. 
He  himself  was  soon  taken  prisoner,  but  Samaria  prepared 
for  a  siege.  It  lasted  nearly  three  years,  during  which  time 
intense  suffering  afflicted  the  city.  At  last  the  capital  fell  to 
Sargon,  who  destroyed  it,  taking  27,290  of  its  noblest  citizens 
captives,  deporting  them  to  distant  points.  An  Assyrian  gov- 
ernor was  placed  over  the  desolate  land  and  Israel  ceased  to 
exist  longer  as  a  state. 

The  Hebrew  chronicler  tells  us  that  those  taken  into  cap- 
tivity took  on  the  religions  of  the  people  among  whom  they 
settled.  Generally  speaking  this  was  no  doubt  true.  On  the 
other  hand,  traditions  have  come  down  from  other  sources 
concerning  families  who  continued  to  worship  Jehovah  as 
before.  However,  after  a  few  generations,  their  descendants 
no  doubt  drifted  away  from  the  faith  of  the  Hebrews. 

Thus  ends  the  story  of  the  ten  tribes  who  broke  away 
from  the  kingdom  of  Solomon's  son  and  organized  their  own 
northern  kingdom.  While  enduring  prophecies  and  messages 
have  been  contributed  by  members  of  these  tribes,  their  king- 
dom presented  no  such  example  as  did  the  smaller  state  of 
Judah  during  the  closing  years  of  her  national  life.  More 
accessible  to  outside  influences,  more  ready  to  compromise, 
Israel's  early  religious  fervor  gradually  abated.  Some  ex- 
planation for  her  inglorious  end  is  to  be  found  in  the  physical 
geography  of  her  country. 

Before  the  fall  of  Samaria,  Judah  .enjoyed  years  of  material 
prosperity,  with  varying  fortune.  Shortly  before  the  siege 
of  the  northern  capital,  Ahaz,  a  mere  boy,  succeeded  to  the 
Judah  throne.  Inexperienced  in  the  affairs  of  state,  he  was 
nevertheless  reluctant  to  heed  the  counsels  of  older  advisers. 
Assyria  was  threatening  like  a  huge  monster  on  the  eastern 
horizon  and  the  only  possible  way  to  check  her  approach  lay 
in  organizing  a  strong  coalition  of  the  sea-coast  states.  Syria, 
instead  of  taking  the  initiative,  joined  with  Israel  for  the  pur- 
pose of  invading  Judea,  and  dividing  the  spoils  between  them. 
This  fatal  mistake  led  ultimately  to  the  destruction  of  both 
aggressive  countries.  King  Ahaz  of  Judaea,  against  the  wise 
and  urgent  advice  of  Isaiah,  offered  allegiance  to  the  Assyrian 
emperor  in  turn  for  protection  against  his  neighbors,  selling 
his  countrymen  into  tribute  slavery  and  despoiling  the  temple 


ThS   story  OJ*  The   HEBREWS.  477 

of  its  treasure  for  gifts  of  submission.  Thus  it  happened  that 
while  Damascus  and  Samaria  fell  before  the  armies  of  Assyria. 
Jerusalem  was  not  approached,  nor  Judaea  invaded,  although 
her  king  became  a  vassal  of  Tiglath-Pileser  III. 

Under  such  trying  conditions  as  these  Isaiah  came  into 
national  view  and  evinced  qualities  which  have  given  him 
rank  with  the  great  statesmen  of  the  world.  Denouncing 
social  wrongs,  he  was  soon  drawn  into  the  affairs  of  the  state. 
Taking  no  part  in  the  politics  of  his  day,  he  stood  steadfastly 
for  fidelity  to  the  ideals  of  his  race  and  faith.  He  appre- 
ciated the  position  that  his  country  ought  to  occupy,  knowing 
well  that  as  a  political  power  she  could  not  hope  to  cope  with 
even  the  secondary  nations  around  her.  Only  by  holding  her- 
self aloof  from  material  considerations,  and  clinging  tena- 
ciously to  the  religious  principles  earlier  evolved,  could  she 
come  safely  through  the  critical  times  encompassing  her. 
Isaiah  taught  that  it  was  for  Judah  to  purge  her  worship  of 
idolatrous  practices  which  had  drifted  into  it  and  to  go  for- 
ward with  unfaltering  faith  in  the  ultimate  dominance  of  right 
over  wrong,  justice  over  injustice.  However  he  spoke  to  deaf 
ears,  for  the  ideals  for  which  he  stood,  the  moderate  measures 
for  which  he  pleaded,  were  unpopular  with  the  people  at  this 
time. 

For  some  years  Judaea  paid  her  tribute,  thankful  to  be  left 
undisturbed.  Gradually  a  party  sprang  up  which  opposed 
the  tribute  payment,  and  during  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  its 
adherents  became  numerous  enough  to  control  the  policy  of 
their  nation.  Babylonia  was  secretly  planning  a  revolt  which 
she  desired  to  make  general;  accordingly  ambassadors  were 
dispatched  to  the  court  of  Hezekiah — ostensibly  to  congratu- 
late him  on  his  recent  recovery,  but  really  to  win  him  to  this 
revolt,  and  to  estimate  the  resources  of  his  kingdom.  About 
702  B.  c.  all  was  ripe  for  the  planned  revolt,  and  Assyrian 
officials  were  refused  the  tribute.  Sargon  was  dead  and  it 
was  not  expected  that  his  son  would  prove  so  successful  a 
warrior  as  he  had  been.  But  no  sooner  had  news  of  the  revolt 
reached  Sennacherib  than  he  pushed  west,  and  reached  the 
coast  before  the  allies  were  prepared.  Meeting  them  sepa- 
rately, they  quickly  melted  away  before  his  disciplined  troops. 
Cities  of  Phoenicia  and  the  Philistines  surrendered,  and  armies 


47^  The  wori^d's  progress. 

spread  into  the  valleys  of  Judaea,  surrounding  Jerusalerti  itself. 
Hezekiah  was  terrified  into  offering  heavy  tribute,  stripping 
the  temple  of  its  remaining  ornaments  to  provide  the  sum 
exacted  by  the  emperor  as  the  price  of  peace.  Cities  around 
about  were  being  laid  waste  and  their  inhabitants  carried  into 
captivity. 

In  spite  of  the  booty  sent  him,  Sennacherib  felt  that  his 
victory  over  Jerusalem  was  incomplete,  and  turning  to  meet 
an  Egyptian  relief  force  approaching  Judaea  from  the  south, 
Sennacherib  sent  word  to  Hezekiah  that,  unless  the  city  gates 
swung  open  to  him  on  his  return,  he  would  storm  its  walls. 

It  had  been  a  grievous  matter  to  provide  the  treasure  al- 
ready required  by  the  Assyrian,  and  consternation  filled  Jeru- 
salem, where  little  hope  of  holding  out  against  the  veteran 
troops  could  longer  be  entertained.  With  characteristic  calm, 
Isaiah  declared  that  deliverance  for  Zion  would  be  forth-com- 
ing, and  he  took  occasion  to  bring  home  to  the  people  their 
deep  corruption  and  idolatrous  wanderings,  while  safety  for 
them  lay  in  devotion  to  Jehovah.  For  once  the  terrified 
Hebrews  were  ready  to  harken  to  any  counsel  that  carried 
with  it  a  promise  of  hope. 

The  fate  of  Sennacherib's  army  is  well  known:  how  en- 
camped in  a  fever-breeding  swamp,  it  was  stricken  in  a  night. 
The  few  who  escaped  the  plague,  set  out  at  once  on  a  home- 
ward march,  and  Jerusalem  was  left  unmolested.  As  was 
their  custom,  the  Hebrews  attributed  their  escape  to  direct 
intervention  of  Jehovah  in  their  behalf.  The  beautiful  poem 
of  Byron  touching  the  incident,  expresses  well  their  convic- 
tions : 

Destruction  of  Sennacherib. 

The  Assyrian  came  down  like  the  wolf  on  the  fold. 
And  his  cohorts  were  gleaming  in  purple  and  gold; 
And  the  sheen  of  their  spears  was  like  stars  on  the  sea. 
When  the  blue  waves  roll  nightly  on  deep  Galilee. 

Like  the  leaves  of  the  forest  when  summer  is  green, 
That  host  with  their  banners  at  sun-set  was  seen; 
Like  the  leaves  of  the  forest  when  autumn  hath  blown. 
That  host  on  the  morrow  lay  withered  and  strewn. 


THE   STORY   OF   THE    HEBREWS.  479 

For  the  angel  of  death  spread  his  wings  on  the  blast. 
And  breathed  in  the  face  of  the  foe  as  he  passed; 
And  the  eyes  of  the  sleepers  waxed  deadly  and  chill, 
And  their  hearts  but  once  heaved — and  forever  grew  still. 

And  there  lay  the  steed  with  his  nostril  all  wide, 
But  through  it  there  rolled  not  the  breath  of  his  pride; 
And  the  foam  of  his  gasping  lay  white  on  the  turf, 
And  cold  as  the  spray  of  the  rock  beating  surf. 

And  there  lay  the  rider,  distorted  and  pale, 
With  the  dew  on  his  brow  and  the  rust  on  his  mail ; 
And  the  tents  were  all  silent,  the  banners  alone. 
The  lances  unlifted,  the  trumpet  unblown. 

And  the  widows  of  Asshur  are  loud  in  their  wail. 
And  the  idols  are  broke  in  the  temple  of  Baal; 
And  the  might  of  the  Gentile,  unsmote  by  the  sword, 
Hath  melted  like  snow  in  the  glance  of  the  Lord! 

— -Byron. 

Hezekiah  was  so  affected  by  his  marvellous  deliverance, 
that  he  listened  to  the  voice  of  Isaiah  throughout  the  remainder 
of  his  days,  and  instigated  both  social  and  religious  reforms. 
These  were  so  radical  that  ere  long  a  reaction  set  in.  All 
religious  practices  were  again  tolerated  and  Isaiah  and  his 
followers  were  forbidden  to  preach  to  the  people.  This  forced 
the  prophet  to  give  permanency  to  his  messages  by  writing 
them  down  for  future  generations.  It  was  now  that  the  book 
of  Deuteronomy  was  produced,  known  later  as  the  Book  of 
Law.  Many  of  the  rules  therein  laid  down  had  cause  for  being 
in  the  conditions  of  the  times.  For  example,  every  locality 
had  possessed  its  own  peculiar  form  of  sacrifice  and  its  own 
priesthood.  To  insure  regularity  of  worship  it  was  now  pro- 
vided that  religious  festivals  should  be  solemnized  only  at  the 
temple  of  Jerusalem,  which  city  should  be  the  religious  center 
of  the  land.  When  in  the  time  of  Josiah  another  period  of 
religious  reform  set  in,  this  Book  of  Law,  or  Deuteronomy,  was 
discovered  in  the  temple  where  it  had  lain  unnoticed.  This 
gave  occasion  for  a  complete  overturning  of  social  and  religious 
customs.     As  in  previous  periods  of  prosperity,  the  Hebrews 


48o  THS  wori^d's  progre;ss. 

had  sunk  into  reckless  extravagances  and  hopeless  poverty; 
into  idolatrous  worship  and  gross  immorality.  The  reforms 
instituted  by  Josiah  were  designed  to  recall  the  masses  to  paths 
outlined  for  them  by  their  greatest  teachers  and  prophets. 

"  The  full  significance  of  this  sweeping  innovation  can  be 
appreciated  only  by  a  comparison  with  the  practices  which  it 
supplanted.  Hitherto  sacrifices  appear  to  have  been  offered 
anywhere  and  by  any  one;  in  fact,  every  animal  slain  was 
regarded  as  shared  with  the  deity.  At  every  town  there  was 
a  high  place  to  which  the  people  went,  not  only  on  feast  days, 
but  whenever  they  wished,  through  the  priest,  to  have  a  dis- 
puted case  settled,  or  to  ascertain  the  divine  will  respecting 
their  private  matter.  Religion  entered  into  all  their  life.  The 
enactments  of  Deuteronomy  swept  away  the  high  places,  placed 
a  ban  upon  private  sacrifice,  and  restricted  all  offerings  to  the 
Temple.  A  sharp  distinction  was  thereby  drawn  between  the 
laity  and  the  priests,  between  secular  and  holy  things.  Re- 
ligion henceforth  became  something  formal,  above  and  apart, 
rather  than  in  all  which  concerned  the  nation  or  individual. 
Conventionality  took  the  place  of  the  old  freedom  and  joyous- 
ness  which  had  so  often  degenerated  into  laxness.  The  end 
desired  by  the  reformers  was  attained.  The  narrowing  of 
religion  saved  it  from  the  shallowness  of  heathenism.  The 
Jehovah  who  was  worshipped  in  the  Temple  with  jealously 
guarded  forms  was  not  in  danger  of  being  degraded  to  a  level 
with  the  surrounding  deities.  That  which  henceforth  consti- 
tuted the  Jewish  church  was  divorced  from  the  state,  and  so 
survived  the  downfall  of  the  nation.  Unfortunately  the  nar- 
rowing process  did  not  cease  after  the  crisis  was  past,  so  that 
its  later  effects  were  deplorable;  but,  measured  in  the  light  of 
existing  circumstances,  the  reformation  of  Josiah  marks  the 
beginning  of  that  movement  which  ultimately  resulted  in  the 
complete  elimination  of  the  practical  heathenism  which  had 
long  threatened  the  extinction  of  the  pure  worship  of 
Jehovah."  * 

After  the  fall  of  Nineveh,  Egyptian  forces  attempted  to 
cross  Palestine  on  their  way  to  the  east.  Their  progress  was 
forbidden  by  the  Judean  king.  In  the  battle  which  ensued 
Josiah  was  slain.     This  has  been  called  the  "  most  tragic  event 

>Hist.  of  the  Hebrew  People :  Vol.  II,  180. 


THE   STORY   OV   THE    HEBREWS.  481 

in  Hebrew  history."  In  the  crude  judgment  of  his  day,  the 
masses  regarded  his  death  as  punishment  for  the  destruction 
of  the  high  places  throughout  the  land.  These  were  re-estab- 
lished, and  for  the  moment  it  seemed  that  all  the  results  of  the 
late  reformation  were  s\vept  away. 

Egypt  held  Judah  in  tribute  for  three  or  four  years.  Then 
Babylonia  defeated  the  Egyptian  army  and  appropriated  its 
conquests  for  the  new  Chaldean  empire. 

About  597  B.  c,  tribute  having  been  refused  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, he  marched  against  Jerusalem  and  took  the  flower  of  her 
people  into  captivity.  Those  who  were  left  foolishly  planned 
a  second  revolt.  Jeremiah  filled  the  place  once  occupied  by 
Isaiah,  and  he  denounced  the  folly  of  the  popular  party  with 
great  force,  vividly  picturing  the  ruin  a  revolt  would  cause. 
His  very  life  was  in  danger  because  of  the  boldness  of  his 
counsel,  and  at  times  he  was  held  prisoner.  Shortly  again 
the  armies  of  Babylonia  stood  before  the  walls  of  Jerusalem. 
The  great  king  remembered  the  history  of  centuries  wherein 
the  resources  of  Assyria  and  Babylonia  had  been  squandered 
in  holding  the  western  states.  He  resolved  to  settle  the  matter 
for  all  time,  and  the  city  of  Jerusalem  was  utterly  laid  waste, 
while  its  inhabitants  were  for  the  most  part  deported  to  Baby- 
lonia. Jeremiah  was  left  free  to  go  wherever  he  chose,  and 
he  remained  with  the  poor  peasants  who  were  left  to  till  the 
soil.  Shortly  after  the  stricken  band  migrated  to  Egypt  where 
they  soon  lost  their  identity. 

After  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  in  586  b.  c,  the  perpetuation 
of  the  Hebrew  faith  was  left  solely  to  those  thousands  of  cap- 
tives who  had  been  sent  to  Babylon.  Of  all  who  had  pe©pled 
the  fair  land  of  Israel  and  the  hills  of  Judah,  they  alone  re- 
mained to  hold  fast  the  inheritances  of  their  fathers  and  to 
preserve  the  ancient  faith.  During  the  seventy  years  of  their 
captivity  it  was  the  remembrance  of  their  once  proud  nation 
and  beloved  Jerusalem,  together  with  the  hope  of  again  re- 
turning to  its  hills,  that  sustained  those  stricken  hearts  and 
gave  them  courage.  Living  as  much  as  possible  to  themselves, 
they  held  to  their  peculiar  customs  and  in  some  ways  were  not 
materially  changed  by  the  enforced  exile.  However  their  re- 
ligious conceptions  underwent  a  marked  change,  and  the  ex- 
periences of  the  exile  itself  brought  them  finally  into  a  fuller 
realization  of  the  faith  they  had  long  followed  blindly. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

IN  PART  L 

Distant  View  of  the  Pyramids. 

,  Ti'-^/^^^  leading  from  Cairo  to  the  Pyramids  is  often  spoken  of  as 
the  high  road.  Were  it  not  built  up  in  this  way,  communication  would 
be  cut  oft  during  the  period  of  the  inundation. 

Camels,  "ships  of  the  desert,"  are  commonly  used  in  Egypt.  Arabs 
populate  the  land  and  are  clamorous  in  their  demands  for  coins  from 
travelers. 

Great  Pyramid,  Sphinx  and  Temple  of  Armachis. 

The  great  Pyramids  had  stood  approximately  800  years  when  Abraham 
first  came  into  the  Delta ;  they  had  existed  approximately  1500  years  when 
Moses  led  the  Israelites  out  of  the  land  of  bondage.  The  largest  of  the 
three  is  indeed  stupendous,  its  base  covering  thirteen  acres.  In  the  fore- 
ground of  the  picture  is  seen  the  ruins  of  the  Temple  of  Armachis. 

Like  the  Pyramids,  the  Sphinx  has  stood  wrapped  in  mysterious  silence 
these  thousand  years.  The  form  of  the  Sphinx  was  very  common  in 
ancient  Egypt,  it  being  a  symbolic  representation  of  the  king.  The  body 
of  the  lion  symbolized  his  strength,  or  power;  the  human  face  was  a 
portrait  of  the  monarch.  Shifting  sands  have  accumulated  to  the  breast 
of  the  body — said  to  be  140  feet  long.  Of  the  huge  proportions  one  may 
judge  from  the  fact  that  should  a  man  stand  upon  the  ear  of  the  Sphinx 
his  hand  could  not  reach  the  top  of  the  head.  A  little  chapel  of  com- 
paratively recent  date  has  been  placed  between  the  paws  of  the  lion. 

Tourists  Scaling  the  Great  Pyramid. 

The  Great  Pyramid  was  originally  covered  with  blocks  of  the  hardest 
granite.  This  casing  was  removed  by  the  Mohammedans  for  use  in  build- 
ing the  mosque  of  Cairo.  Thus  removed,  the  blocks  of  building  stone  of 
which  the  huge  pile  is  for  the  most  part  composed,  were  left  exposed. 
Laid  down  in  the  form  of  steps,  tourists  today  are  able  to  climb  to  the 
very  top.  To  be  sure,  some  of  these  steps  are  shoulder  high,  but  with 
much  pulling  by  guides  in  front  and  some  pushing  from  those  behind,  one 
may  ascend  in  about  half  an  hour.  The  splendid  view  over  the  valley  and 
neighboring  desert  amply  repay  one  for  the  discomforts  of  the  climb. 

Dromos  (Columns)  and  Second  Pylon  (Gateway)  Temple 

OF  Karnak. 

The  great  temple  of  Karnak  was  begun  by  Seti  I.,  and  was  enlarged 
by  many  succeeding  Pharaohs.  An  avenue  of  rams  led  to  the  gateway, 
which  was  the  last  portion  to  be  completed.  Crossing  a  court,  one  came 
at  length  to  the  temple  itself. 

The  figures  and  letters  carved  on  the  stone  may  be  plainly  seen  in  this 
picture. 

Beautiful  Island  of  Philae  and  the  Nile. 

This  templed  island  of  Philae,  known  sometimes  as  "the  pearl  of 
Egypt,"  lies  uppermost  of  a  group  of  islands  forming  the  first  cataract 
Isis  was  the  local  deity  and  to  her  a  temple  was  built  in  remote  times. 
Recently  a  great  dam  has  been  constructed  near  Philae  to  insure  a  larger 
supply  of  water  for  the  valley.    It  has  been  estimated  that  $13,000,000  will 

483 


484  DESCRIPTIONS  O^   ILLUSTRATIONS   IN    PART  I. 

accrue  to  Egypt  annually  by  this  means,  but  the  island  of  Philae,  with  its 
beautiful  temple,  is  thereby  doomed.  Indignant  protests  have  been  made 
from  lovers  of  the  beautiful  in  many  lands,  but  the  English  government 
has  shown  itself  more  determined  to  insure  the  prompt  payment  of  in- 
terest upon  its  bonds  than  to  preserve  monxunents  of  antiquity. 

Harem  Window  and  Court. 

As  is  well  known,  in  all  Mohammedan  countries,  women  pass  their 
lives  in  closest  seclusion.  Their  quarters  are  provided  in  the  upper  story 
of  the  house,  the  windows  being  small  indeed.  Seldom  going  out,  living 
their  years  in  idleness,  it  is  small  wonder  that  these  unfortunate  creatures 
often  resort  to  intrigues  to  absorb  their  interest 

Winged  Lion. 

These  symbolic  animals  in  stone  were  stationed  at  the  portals  of  the 
royal  palace  and  sometimes  guarded  the  palaces  of  the  wealthy  in  Assyria. 
The  lion's  body  symbolized  strength,  the  wings  of  the  eagle,  swiftness; 
the  human  head,  human  intelligence.  It  was  believed  that  evil  spirits 
would  pause  before  such  emblems  of  majesty,  nor  dare  to  enter. 

Musicians  and  Attendants  in  the  Garden  of 
Asshurbanipal. 

After  the  war  was  over,  the  king,  satiated  with  booty  and  slaughter, 
sought  the  quieter  pleasures  of  the  banquet.  This  was  frequently  served 
in  the  royal  garden,  while  musicians  dispensed  sweet  strains  of  music. 
To  make  more  animated  the  joyous  occasion,  the  head  of  the  defeated 
king  or  general  was  sometimes  suspended  from  a  nearby  tree,  so  that  the 
Assyrian  ruler  might  exult  over  his  own  triumph  as  he  drank  his  wine.^ 

Damascus  Sword-maker. 

The  swords  of  Damascus  have  always  been  famous.  The  ancient 
sword-makers  understood  a  secret  process  of  tempering  steel  which  ren- 
dered it  very  pliable  and  at  the  same  time  imparted  to  it  astonishing 
strength. 

The  River  Jordan. 

The  word  Jordan  means  "the  down-comer,"  and  truly  a  river  which 
drops  3,000  feet  in  a  course  of  150  miles  is  indeed  a  "descender."  In  the 
spring  the  stream  is  brown  and  muddy,  heavily  charged  as  it  is  with 
debris  from  the  mountains.  Ships  never  journey  far  up  or  down  the 
river.  Below  the  level  of  the  sea,  the  climate  is  hot  and  sultry  and  the 
region  full  of  malaria. 

Harbor  of  Jappa. 

Jappa  is  the  old  Joppa  of  Bible  times.  It  is  almost  the  only  approach 
to  a  seaport  that  Palestine  can  claim,  yet  even  here  large  boats  must 
remain  out  in  deep  waters,  and  travelers  for  the  Holy  Land  who  enter 
in  this  way  must  climb  down  the  side  of  the  steamer  and  be  rowed  to 
shore  in  small  boats.  The  sea  is  usually  very  rough  at  this  point,  adding 
to  the  general  discomfort  of  the  situation  for  travelers. 

Roses  of  Sharon. 

Palestine  is  beautiful  with  flowers  in  the  spring.  Narcissus,  the  "roses 
of  Sharon,"  and  Iris,  "the  lilies  of  the  valley,"  grow  in  profusion  over  the 
foothills. 


University  of  California 

SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 

Return  this  material  to  the  library 

from  which  it  was  borrowed. 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGONAl  LIBRARY  FAOl! 


mnffliiiii 


mw\ 


A     000  407  041     3 


